Aleksandras Stulginskis University

Abstract Aim Primary forests have high conservation value but are rare in Europe due to historic land use. Yet many primary forest patches remain unmapped, and it is unclear to what extent they are effectively protected. Our aim was to (1) compile the most comprehensive European‐scale map of currently known primary forests, (2) analyse the spatial determinants characterizing their location and (3) locate areas where so far unmapped primary forests likely occur. Location Europe. Methods We aggregated data from a literature review, online questionnaires and 32 datasets of primary forests. We used boosted regression trees to explore which biophysical, socio‐economic and forest‐related variables explain the current distribution of primary forests. Finally, we predicted and mapped the relative likelihood of primary forest occurrence at a 1‐km resolution across Europe. Results Data on primary forests were frequently incomplete or inconsistent among countries. Known primary forests covered 1.4 Mha in 32 countries (0.7% of Europe’s forest area). Most of these forests were protected (89%), but only 46% of them strictly. Primary forests mostly occurred in mountain and boreal areas and were unevenly distributed across countries, biogeographical regions and forest types. Unmapped primary forests likely occur in the least accessible and populated areas, where forests cover a greater share of land, but wood demand historically has been low. Main conclusions Despite their outstanding conservation value, primary forests are rare and their current distribution is the result of centuries of land use and forest management. The conservation outlook for primary forests is uncertain as many are not strictly protected and most are small and fragmented, making them prone to extinction debt and human disturbance. Predicting where unmapped primary forests likely occur could guide conservation efforts, especially in Eastern Europe where large areas of primary forest still exist but are being lost at an alarming pace.

Mixing of complementary tree species may increase stand productivity, mitigate the effects of drought and other risks, and pave the way to forest production systems which may be more resource-use efficient and stable in the face of climate change. However, systematic empirical studies on mixing effects are still missing for many commercially important and widespread species combinations. Here we studied the growth of Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) and European beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.) in mixed versus pure stands on 32 triplets located along a productivity gradient through Europe, reaching from Sweden to Bulgaria and from Spain to the Ukraine. Stand inventory and taking increment cores on the mainly 60–80 year-old trees and 0.02–1.55 ha sized, fully stocked plots provided insight how species mixing modifies the structure, dynamics and productivity compared with neighbouring pure stands. In mixture standing volume (+12 %), stand density (+20 %), basal area growth (+12 %), and stand volume growth (+8 %) were higher than the weighted mean of the neighbouring pure stands. Scots pine and European beech contributed rather equally to the overyielding and overdensity. In mixed stands mean diameter (+20 %) and height (+6 %) of Scots pine was ahead, while both diameter and height growth of European beech were behind (−8 %). The overyielding and overdensity were independent of the site index, the stand growth and yield, and climatic variables despite the wide variation in precipitation (520–1175 mm year −1 ), mean annual temperature (6–10.5 °C), and the drought index by de Martonne (28–61 mm °C −1 ) on the sites. Therefore, this species combination is potentially useful for increasing productivity across a wide range of site and climatic conditions. Given the significant overyielding of stand basal area growth but the absence of any relationship with site index and climatic variables, we hypothesize that the overyielding and overdensity results from several different types of interactions (light-, water-, and nutrient-related) that are all important in different circumstances. We discuss the relevance of the results for ecological theory and for the ongoing silvicultural transition from pure to mixed stands and their adaptation to climate change.

Pancreatic cancer is a disease that has a very high fatality rate and one of the highest mortality ratios among all major cancers, remaining the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths in developed countries. The major treatment of pancreatic cancer is surgery; however, only 15-20% of patients are candidates for it at the diagnosis of disease. On the other hand, survival in patients, who undergo surgery, is less than 30%. In most cancers, genome stability is disturbed and pancreatic cancer is not the exception. Approximately 97% of pancreatic cancers have gene derangements, defined by point mutations, amplifications, deletions, translocations, and inversions. This review describes the most frequent genetic alterations found in pancreatic cancer.

Abstract A large proportion of European biodiversity today depends on habitat provided by low‐intensity farming practices, yet this resource is declining as European agriculture intensifies. Within the European Union, particularly the central and eastern new member states have retained relatively large areas of species‐rich farmland, but despite increased investment in nature conservation here in recent years, farmland biodiversity trends appear to be worsening. Although the high biodiversity value of Central and Eastern European farmland has long been reported, the amount of research in the international literature focused on farmland biodiversity in this region remains comparatively tiny, and measures within the EU Common Agricultural Policy are relatively poorly adapted to support it. In this opinion study, we argue that, 10 years after the accession of the first eastern EU new member states, the continued under‐representation of the low‐intensity farmland in Central and Eastern Europe in the international literature and EU policy is impeding the development of sound, evidence‐based conservation interventions. The biodiversity benefits for Europe of existing low‐intensity farmland, particularly in the central and eastern states, should be harnessed before they are lost. Instead of waiting for species‐rich farmland to further decline, targeted research and monitoring to create locally appropriate conservation strategies for these habitats is needed now.

Summary There is increasing evidence that species diversity enhances the temporal stability (TS) of community productivity in different ecosystems, although its effect at the population and tree levels seems to be negative or neutral. Asynchrony in species responses to environmental conditions was found to be one of the main drivers of this stabilizing process. However, the effect of species mixing on the stability of productivity, and the relative importance of the associated mechanisms, remain poorly understood in forest communities. We investigated the way mixing species influenced the TS of productivity in Pinus sylvestris L. and Fagus sylvatica L. forests, and attempted to determine the main drivers among overyielding, asynchrony between species annual growth responses to environmental conditions, and temporal shifts in species interactions. We used a network of 93 experimental plots distributed across Europe to compare the TS of basal area growth over a 15‐year period (1999–2013) in mixed and monospecific forest stands at different organizational levels, namely the community, population and individual tree levels. Mixed stands showed a higher TS of basal area growth than monospecific stands at the community level, but not at the population or individual tree levels. The TS at the community level was related to asynchrony between species growth in mixtures, but not to overyielding nor to asynchrony between species growth in monospecific stands. Temporal shifts in species interactions were also related to asynchrony and to the mixing effect on the TS. Synthesis . Our findings confirm that species mixing can stabilize productivity at the community level, whereas there is a neutral or negative effect on stability at the population and individual tree levels. The contrasting findings regarding the relationships between the temporal stability and asynchrony in species growth in mixed and monospecific stands suggest that the main driver in the stabilizing process may be the temporal niche complementarity between species rather than differences in species’ intrinsic responses to environmental conditions.

e-ISSN 2335-8947

While sustainable forestry in Europe is characterized by the provision of a multitude of forest ecosystem services, there exists no comprehensive study that scrutinizes their sensitivity to forest management on a pan-European scale, so far. We compile scenario runs from regionally tailored forest growth models and Decision Support Systems (DSS) from 20 case studies throughout Europe and analyze whether the ecosystem service provision depends on management intensity and other co-variables, comprising regional affiliation, social environment, and tree species composition. The simulation runs provide information about the case-specifically most important ecosystem services in terms of appropriate indicators. We found a strong positive correlation between management intensity and wood production, but only weak correlation with protective and socioeconomic forest functions. Interestingly, depending on the forest region, we found that biodiversity can react in both ways, positively and negatively, to increased management intensity. Thus, it may be in tradeoff or in synergy with wood production and forest resource maintenance. The covariables species composition and social environment are of punctual interest only, while the affiliation to a certain region often makes an important difference in terms of an ecosystem service’s treatment sensitivity.

Glioma is the most aggressive brain tumor of the central nervous system. The ability of glioma cells to migrate, rapidly diffuse and invade normal adjacent tissue, their sustained proliferation, and heterogeneity contribute to an overall survival of approximately 15 months for most patients with high grade glioma. Numerous studies indicate that non-coding RNA species have critical functions across biological processes that regulate glioma initiation and progression. Recently, new data emerged, which shows that the cross-regulation between long non-coding RNAs and small non-coding RNAs contribute to phenotypic diversity of glioblastoma subclasses. In this paper, we review data of long non-coding RNA expression, which was evaluated in human glioma tissue samples during a five-year period. Thus, this review summarizes the following: (I) the role of non-coding RNAs in glioblastoma pathogenesis, (II) the potential application of non-coding RNA species in glioma-grading, (III) crosstalk between lncRNAs and miRNAs (IV) future perspectives of non-coding RNAs as biomarkers for glioma.

Abstract The paper presents the different definitions of innovation; the objective of the research being that of creating a theoretical model building on the previous work of several authors. The aim of the research is to define the different models, classifications and definitions of innovation. In this article we made use of a wide range of bibliographical sources on innovation, efficiency and also used comparative analysis of innovation definitions. Theoretical concepts were studied as well. The approach was constructed based on theoretical models of innovation definitions and used the technology and market perspectives. The main methods employed were comparative analysis of definitions of innovation and the creation of a model of innovation. It has been emphasized in the literature that the role of innovation is very important for making decisions regarding investment projects or investments for production. Innovation can bring benefits such as saving time, costs, and products and use them more effectively. Nowadays in the world, innovation is one of the most important factors of economic development, production, creation of a variety of products and in making management decisions. Innovation activity stimulates and has a positive effect also in investment activity. Innovation is the core action for the development and productivity of any economic activity. Investment activity and its results are directly dependent on the type of innovation that has been used. An important range of literature sources refer to innovation efficiency measurement criteria, which are in most cases related to product, technology (process) and market. The use of a number of different measurement indicators is leading to the need for further examination of the innovation-business performance relationship. Our findings have let us distinguish five major groups of criteria where various factors could be allocated. To the three groups (product, market and process) we allocate two additional groups: finance and management. Innovation plays an important role in the efficiency of investments in an organization, forms of business activity and state policy in the field of business and design.

Abstract The condition of forest ecosystems depends on the temporal and spatial pattern of management interventions and natural disturbances. Remnants of previous conditions persisting after disturbances, or ecosystem legacies, collectively comprise ecosystem memory. Ecosystem memory in turn contributes to resilience and possibilities of ecosystem reorganization following further disturbance. Understanding the role of disturbance and legacies is a prerequisite for maintaining resilience in the face of global change. Several legacy concepts discussed in the peer‐reviewed literature, including disturbance, biological, soil, land‐use, and silvicultural legacies, overlap in complex ways. Here, we review these established legacy concepts and propose that the new terms “material legacy” (individuals or matter, e.g., survivors, coarse woody debris, nutrients left after disturbance) and “information legacy” (adaptations to historical disturbance regimes) cut across these previous concepts and lead to a new classification of legacies. This includes six categories: material legacies with above‐ and belowground, and biotic and abiotic categories, and information legacies with above‐ and belowground categories. These six legacies are influenced by differential patterns of editing and conditioning by “legacy syndromes” that result from natural or human‐manipulated disturbance regimes that can be arranged along a gradient of naturalness. This scheme is applied to a case study of hemiboreal forests in the Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, where natural disturbance, traditional clearcut silviculture, and afforestation of abandoned agricultural lands constitute the three main legacy syndromes. These legacy syndromes in turn influence forest response to management actions and constrain resilience, leading to a mosaic of natural, manipulated, and artificial (novel) ecosystems across the landscape, depending on how the legacies in each syndrome affect ecological memory.

In this short note we present comparable loss rates of honey bee colonies during winter 2015/16 from 29 countries, obtained with the COLOSS questionnaire. Altogether, we received valid answers from 19,952 beekeepers. These beekeepers collectively wintered 421,238 colonies, and reported 18,587 colonies with unsolvable queen problems and 32,048 dead colonies after winter. This gives an overall loss rate of 12.0% (95% confidence interval 11.8–12.2%) during winter 2015/16, with marked differences among countries. Beekeepers in the present study assessed 7.6% (95% CI 7.4–7.8%) of their colonies as dead or empty, and 4.4% (95% CI 4.3–4.5%) as having unsolvable queen problems after winter. The overall analysis showed that small operations suffered higher losses than larger ones. A table with detailed results and a map showing response and relative risks at regional level are presented.

BACKGROUND: Skin surface pH is known to influence the dissolution and partitioning of chemicals and may influence exposures that lead to skin diseases. Non-clinical environments (e.g., workplaces) are highly variable, thereby presenting unique measurement challenges that are not typically encountered in clinical settings. Hence, guidelines are needed for consistent measurement of skin surface pH in environments that are difficult to control. METHODS: An expert workshop was convened at the 5th International Conference on Occupational and Environmental Exposure of Skin to Chemicals to review available data on factors that could influence the determination of skin surface pH in non-clinical settings with emphasis on the workplace as a worst case scenario. RESULTS: The key elements of the guidelines are: (i) minimize, to the extent feasible, the influences of relevant endogenous (anatomical position, skin health, time of day), exogenous (hand washing, barrier creams, soaps and detergents, occlusion), environmental (seasonality), and measurement (atmospheric conditions) factors; (ii) report pH measurements results as a difference or percent change (not absolute values) using a measure of central tendency and variability; and (iii) report notable deviations from these guidelines and other relevant factors that may influence measurements. CONCLUSION: Guidelines on the measurement and reporting of skin surface pH in non-clinical settings should promote consistency in data reporting, facilitate inter-comparison of study results, and aid in understanding and preventing occupational skin diseases.

Housing affordability is a multi-dimensional issue, yet it is typically defined and assessed quite narrowly in terms of financial criteria. The housing affordability problem encompasses more than financial costs of housing and extends to larger issues of social wellbeing and sustainability. Accordingly, a broader range of factors ought to be considered when defining and assessing affordability, particularly if more sustainable outcomes are desired from housing. A comprehensive system of criteria representing sustainable housing affordability, developed by the authors, is validated and analysed in this paper. The quantitative data analysis of surveys conducted with housing and planning professionals across the UK is used to determine stakeholder’s perceptions on the criteria contributing to sustainable housing affordability and to rank these criteria according to their importance. The paper establishes that professional opinions on this issue differ insignificantly across different regions of the UK, while it varies to some extent depending on the sector of housing industry.

To promote the expansion of feasible biogas production, an optimisation of the whole process chain is essential. In this context the optimisation of the biogas-conditioning process is of great importance. By improving this process, new fields of application, e.g. its usage as car fuel or natural gas substitute can be developed. Currently applied chemical/physical conditioning techniques are cost intensive and hinder a reasonable production for smaller biogas plants. At present a possible low-cost alternative by application of microalgae is being investigated at the University of Rostock. To determine their ability to reduce carbon dioxide from biogas, laboratory-scale photobioreactors with a culture volume of 0.45 l are deployed. In 2008 the microalgae Chlorella sp. was analysed in terms of conditioning biogas. As a result the biogas components CO2 and H2S could be reduced up to 97.07% and 100%, respectively. Also an increase of microalgae cell count could be documented, which provides interesting alternatives for the production of algae ingredients.

The study deals with the effects made by individual variation of cetane number, fuel-oxygen content, or widely differing properties of diesel-HRD fuel blends involving ethanol (E) or biodiesel (B) on the ignition delay, combustion phenomenon, maximum heat release rate, and the cyclic variation of a turbocharged CRDI diesel engine. The most important control factors one after another operated separately in this study to make a difference. Load characteristics were taken when running with a straight diesel and various (18) diesel-HRD fuel blends at maximum torque mode of 2000 rpm and speeds of 1500 and 2500 rpm to provide correct interpretation of the test results. Then, load (bmep) characteristics were plotted as a function of the relative air-fuel ratio (λ) and the analysis of combustion parameters was conducted for the ‘lambda’ values of λ = 1.30, 1.25 and 1.20, at the respective speeds of 1500, 2000 and 2500 rpm. Analysis of changes in the ignition delay, combustion characteristics, and the cyclic variation of parameters when using fuel blends of both origins was performed on comparative bases with the corresponding values measured with ‘base-line’ blends with CN = 51.2 or zero oxygen content and a straight diesel to reveal the potential developing trends. The enhanced cetane number of oxygenated fuels improved combustion and reduced cyclic variation when running at the high speed of 2500 rpm mainly. Whereas fuel-oxygen content should be neither too high nor too low, but just enough to assure complete combustion and low cyclic variation. The differing properties of the fuel involving ethanol or biodiesel were a separate factor strongly affecting diffusive combustion and the coefficient of cyclic variation (COV). Developing trends in the combustion characteristics were used to interpret the resulting changes in engine performance, emissions, and smoke (Part 2).

A two - factor experiment was carried out in the Experiment Station of Lithuanian University of Agriculture in 2004 - 2005. Different organic mulches, chopped wheat straw, peat, wood chips, grass and wood chips, and wood chips which had been stored for 8 years (only in 2005) were overspead by a layer of 5 cm and 10 cm thickness. The influence of different organic mulches on weed emergence was evaluated. All organic mulches reduced weed germination. The positive effect of mulches was particularly obvious in the period of intensive germination of weeds. Straw, peat and wood chips had the strongest influence on the decrease of weed germination, however, it is important to make sure that mulches are not infected with weed seeds. Mulch of chopped grass is quick to decompose, therefore, repeated mulching is required to protect the crop from weeds. Key wods: organic mulches, weed emergence, annual weeds, perennial weeds

Place-based transdisciplinary research involves multiple academic disciplines and non-academic actors. Long-Term Socio-Ecological Research (LTSER) platform is one concept with ~ 80 initiatives globally. As an exercise in learning through evaluation we audited (1) the siting, construction and maintenance of individual LTSER platforms, and (2) them as a distributed infrastructure for place-based transdisciplinary research with focus on the European continent. First, we defined a normative model for ideal performance at both platform and network levels. Second, four surveys were sent out to the 67 self-reported LTSER platforms officially listed at the end of 2016. Third, with a focus on the network level, we analyzed the spatial distribution of both long-term ecological monitoring sites within LTSER platforms, and LTSER platforms across the European continent. Fourth, narrative biographies of 18 platforms in different stages of development were analyzed. While the siting of LTSER platforms represented biogeographical regions well, variations in land use history and democratic governance were not well represented. Platform construction was based on 2.1 ecological monitoring sites, with 72% ecosystem and 28% social system research. Maintenance of a platform required three to five staff members, focused mostly on ecosystem research, was based mainly on national funding, and had 1–2 years of future funding secured. Networking with other landscape approach concepts was common. Individually, and as a network, LTSER platforms have good potential for transdisciplinary knowledge production and learning about sustainability challenges. To improve the range of variation of Pan-European social–ecological systems we encourage interfacing with other landscape approach concepts.

The current paper discusses the characteristics of principal growth stages of hemp (Canabis sativa), provides a brief description of these stages and of the coding system according to the BBCH scale. The growing season of hemp is divided into nine principal growth stages: germination and sprouting (0), leaf development (1), formation of lateral shoots (2), stem elongation (3), inflorescence emergence (5), flowering (6), development of fruit (7), ripening of fruit (8) and senescence (9). The principal growth stages are subdivided into secondary stages based on their main distinctive features. The classification system of hemp growth stages presented in the paper is designed for hemp growers and researchers, including plant breeders, physiologists, entomologists and other agricultural producers. Using the uniform coding system of the phenological stages of hemp is a valuable tool to ensure a more efficient planning and implementation of crop and soil management practices and techniques.

Abstract Key message Volume predictions of sample trees are basic inputs for essential National Forest Inventory (NFI) estimates. The predicted volumes are rarely comparable among European NFIs because of country-specific dbh-thresholds and differences regarding the inclusion of the tree parts stump, stem top, and branches. Twenty-one European NFIs implemented harmonisation measures to provide consistent stem volume predictions for comparable forest resource estimates. Context The harmonisation of forest information has become increasingly important. International programs and interest groups from the wood industry, energy, and environmental sectors require comparable information. European NFIs as primary source of forest information are well-placed to support policies and decision-making processes with harmonised estimates. Aims The main objectives were to present the implementation of stem volume harmonisation by European NFIs, to obtain comparable growing stocks according to five reference definitions, and to compare the different results. Methods The applied harmonisation approach identifies the deviations between country-level and common reference definitions. The deviations are minimised through country-specific bridging functions. Growing stocks were calculated from the un-harmonised, and harmonised stem volume estimates and comparisons were made. Results The country-level growing stock results differ from the Cost Action E43 reference definition between − 8 and + 32%. Stumps and stem tops together account for 4 to 13% of stem volume, and large branches constitute 3 to 21% of broadleaved growing stock. Up to 6% of stem volume is allocated below the dbh-threshold. Conclusion Comparable volume figures are available for the first time on a large-scale in Europe. The results indicate the importance of harmonisation for international forest statistics. The presented work contributes to the NFI harmonisation process in Europe in several ways regarding comparable NFI reporting and scenario modelling.

This study investigates the properties of hyperspectral reflectance of healthy and stressed coniferous trees. Two coniferous tree species which naturally grow in Lithuania, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), as well as an introduced species, Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica Du Tour), were selected for the study. Hyperspectral reflectance data were collected under laboratory conditions by scanning the needles of healthy (no foliar loss) and stressed Norway spruce (foliar loss 66-70%), Scots pine (foliar loss 71-75%) and Siberian pine (foliar loss 86-90%) trees using a Themis Vision Systems VNIR 400H hyperspectral imaging camera. The spectrometer of the camera covers the spectral range of 400-1000 nm with the sampling interval of 0.6 nm. Simultaneously, the chlorophyll a and b content in the needles was determined by spectrophotometrically measuring the needles’ absorbance of ethanol extracts. The statistical analyses included principal component analysis, analysis of variance and partial least squares regression techniques. Relatively large spectral differences between healthy and stressed trees were detected for Norway spruce needles: 884 out of 955 wavebands indicated a statistically different reflectance (p<0.05). The reflectance associated with the stress level was statistically different (p<0.05) in 767 and 698 out of 955 wavebands for Scots pine and Siberian pine, respectively. The most informative wavelengths for spectral separation between the needles taken from healthy and stressed trees were found in the following spectral ranges: 701.0-715.7 nm for Norway spruce, 706.1-718.2 nm for Scots pine, and 862.3-893.1 nm for Siberian pine. The relationship between the spectral reflectance properties of the needles and their chlorophyll content was also determined for each species. Waveband ranges (as well as single bands) most sensitive to changes in chlorophyll content were: 709.9-722.1 nm (715.6 nm) for Norway spruce; 709.3-721.4 nm (715.0 nm) for Scots pine; 710.6-722.7 nm (720.1 nm) for Siberian pine. In general, the study revealed that narrow-band based hyperspectral imaging has the potential for accurately detecting stress in coniferous trees.