Australian Federal Police

We report here the genome sequence of an ancient human. Obtained from ∼4,000-year-old permafrost-preserved hair, the genome represents a male individual from the first known culture to settle in Greenland. Sequenced to an average depth of 20×, we recover 79% of the diploid genome, an amount close to the practical limit of current sequencing technologies. We identify 353,151 high-confidence single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), of which 6.8% have not been reported previously. We estimate raw read contamination to be no higher than 0.8%. We use functional SNP assessment to assign possible phenotypic characteristics of the individual that belonged to a culture whose location has yielded only trace human remains. We compare the high-confidence SNPs to those of contemporary populations to find the populations most closely related to the individual. This provides evidence for a migration from Siberia into the New World some 5,500 years ago, independent of that giving rise to the modern Native Americans and Inuit. For the first time, the sequence of a near-complete nuclear genome has been obtained from the tissue of an ancient human. It comes from permafrost-preserved hair, about 4,000 years old, of a male palaeo-Eskimo of the Saqqaq culture, the earliest known settlers in Greenland. Functional single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assessment was used to assign possible phenotypic characteristics. The analysis provides evidence for a migration from Siberia into the New World some 5,500 years ago, independent of the migration that gave rise to the modern Native Americans and Inuit. Elsewhere in the issue we profile the paper's last author Eske Willerslev, who headed the project and found the lock of hair in a Copenhagen museum basement — after a fruitless search among the archaeological sites of Peary Land. The first genome sequence of an ancient human is reported. It comes from an approximately 4,000-year-old permafrost-preserved hair from a male from the first known culture to settle in Greenland. Functional single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assessment is used to assign possible phenotypic characteristics and high-confidence SNPs are compared to those of contemporary populations to find those most closely related to the individual.

Advances in the Internet of Things (IoT) and aviation sector have resulted in the emergence of smart airports. Services and systems powered by the IoT enable smart airports to have enhanced robustness, efficiency and control, governed by real-time monitoring and analytics. Smart sensors control the environmental conditions inside the airport, automate passenger-related actions and support airport security. However, these augmentations and automation introduce security threats to network systems of smart airports. Cyber-attackers demonstrated the susceptibility of IoT systems and networks to Advanced Persistent Threats (APT), due to hardware constraints, software flaws or IoT misconfigurations. With the increasing complexity of attacks, it is imperative to safeguard IoT networks of smart airports and ensure reliability of services, as cyber-attacks can have tremendous consequences such as disrupting networks, cancelling travel, or stealing sensitive information. There is a need to adopt and develop new Artificial Intelligence (AI)-enabled cyber-defence techniques for smart airports, which will address the challenges brought about by the incorporation of IoT systems to the airport business processes, and the constantly evolving nature of contemporary cyber-attacks. In this study, we present a holistic review of existing smart airport applications and services enabled by IoT sensors and systems. Additionally, we investigate several types of cyber defence tools including AI and data mining techniques, and analyse their strengths and weaknesses in the context of smart airports. Furthermore, we provide a classification of smart airport sub-systems based on their purpose and criticality and address cyber threats that can affect the security of smart airport's networks.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: This paper reports an integrative review of the literature on nursing competency standards for nurses working in primary health care and, in particular, general practice. BACKGROUND: Internationally, there is growing emphasis on building a strong primary health care nursing workforce to meet the challenges of rising chronic and complex disease. However, there has been limited emphasis on examining the nursing workforce in this setting. DESIGN: Integrative review. METHODS: A comprehensive search of relevant electronic databases using keywords (e.g. 'competencies', 'competen*' and 'primary health care', 'general practice' and 'nurs*') was combined with searching of the Internet using the Google scholar search engine. Experts were approached to identify relevant grey literature. Key websites were also searched and the reference lists of retrieved sources were followed up. The search focussed on English language literature published since 2000. RESULTS: Limited published literature reports on competency standards for nurses working in general practice and primary health care. Of the literature that is available, there are differences in the reporting of how the competency standards were developed. A number of common themes were identified across the included competency standards, including clinical practice, communication, professionalism and health promotion. Many competency standards also included teamwork, education, research/evaluation, information technology and the primary health care environment. CONCLUSION: Given the potential value of competency standards, further work is required to develop and test robust standards that can communicate the skills and knowledge required of nurses working in primary health care settings to policy makers, employers, other health professionals and consumers. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Competency standards are important tools for communicating the role of nurses to consumers and other health professionals, as well as defining this role for employers, policy makers and educators. Understanding the content of competency standards internationally is an important step to understanding this growing workforce.

In recent years cognitive error models have provided insights into the unsafe acts that lead to many accidents in safety-critical environments. Most models of accident causation are based on the notion that human errors occur in the context of contributing factors. However, there is a lack of published information on possible links between specific errors and contributing factors. A total of 619 safety occurrences involving aircraft maintenance were reported using a self-completed questionnaire. Of these occurrences, 96% were related to the actions of maintenance personnel. The types of errors that were involved, and the contributing factors associated with those actions, were determined. Each type of error was associated with a particular set of contributing factors and with specific occurrence outcomes. Among the associations were links between memory lapses and fatigue and between rule violations and time pressure. Potential applications of this research include assisting with the design of accident prevention strategies, the estimation of human error probabilities, and the monitoring of organizational safety performance.

Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology, edited by: Soren Blau and Douglas H. Ubelaker, Left Coast Press, 2009, 534 pp., AUS$263.00 from sales@footprint.com.au (www.footprint.com.au), ISB...

AIMS: To examine changes in illicit drug consumption between peak holiday season (23 December-3 January) in Australia and a control period two months later in a coastal urban area, an inland semi-rural area and an island populated predominantly by vacationers during holidays. DESIGN: Analysis of representative daily composite wastewater samples collected from the inlet of the major wastewater treatment plant in each area. SETTING: Three wastewater treatment plants. PARTICIPANTS: Wastewater treatment plants serviced approximately 350, 000 persons in the urban area, 120,000 in the semi-rural area and 1100-2400 on the island. MEASUREMENTS: Drug residues were analysed using liquid chromatography coupled to a tandem mass spectrometer. Per capita drug consumption was estimated. Changes in drug use were quantified using Hedges' g. FINDINGS: During the holidays, cannabis consumption in the semi-rural area declined (g = -2.8) as did methamphetamine (-0.8), whereas cocaine (+1.5) and ecstasy (+1.6) use increased. In the urban area, consumption of all drugs increased during holidays (cannabis +1.6, cocaine +1.2, ecstasy +0.8 and methamphetamine +0.3). In the vacation area, methamphetamine (+0.7), ecstasy (+0.7) and cocaine (+1.1) use increased, but cannabis (-0.5) use decreased during holiday periods. CONCLUSIONS: While the peak holiday season in Australia is perceived as a period of increased drug use, this is not uniform across all drugs and areas. Substantial declines in drug use in the semi-rural area contrasted with substantial increases in urban and vacation areas. Per capita drug consumption in the vacation area was equivalent to that in the urban area, implying that these locations merit particular attention for drug use monitoring and harm minimisation measures.

AIMS: To discuss ethical issues that may arise in using WWA to monitor illicit drug use in the general population and in entertainment precincts, prisons, schools and work-places. METHOD: Review current applications of WWA and identify ethical and social issues that may be raised with current and projected future uses of this method. RESULTS: Wastewater analysis (WWA) of drug residues is a promising method of monitoring illicit drug use that may overcome some limitations of other monitoring methods. When used for monitoring purposes in large populations, WWA does not raise major ethical concerns because individuals are not identified and the prospects of harming residents of catchment areas are remote. When WWA is used in smaller catchment areas (entertainment venues, prisons, schools or work-places) their results could, possibly, indirectly affect the occupants adversely. Researchers will need to take care in reporting their results to reduce media misreporting. Fears about possible use of WWA for mass individual surveillance by drug law enforcement officials are unlikely to be realized, but will need to be addressed because they may affect public support adversely for this type of research. CONCLUSIONS: Using wastewater analysis to monitor illicit drug use in large populations does not raise major ethical concerns, but researchers need to minimize possible adverse consequences in studying smaller populations, such as workers, prisoners and students.

AIM: This paper discusses four main strategies for addressing nursing shortages that have been persistent, widespread and growing. Fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic might offer valuable impetus to address this tenacious challenge. BACKGROUND: Nursing shortages are common, widespread and have been persistent for most of a century. Many of the reasons behind these shortages are well known and are themselves enduring, as are the types of strategies put forward for addressing them. These strategies can generally be classified into four main categories: enhancing retention, improving recruitment, encouraging return to practice and drawing on international human resources. The COVID-19 pandemic is the latest major threat to ensuring a sufficiently sized and skilled nursing workforce. Many nurses have succumbed to burnout as well the plethora of factors that predated the pandemic and have a negative impact on nurse wellbeing, turnover and intention to leave. SOURCES OF EVIDENCE: This discussion paper draws on international sources of evidence. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: This paper highlights how many of the factors behind and strategies for addressing nursing shortages at the local, national and global levels are widely studied and known. A sustained combination of strategies that focus both within and beyond health and nursing, including on the broader social context, is necessary. While COVID-19 has been extremely damaging, it might present an opportunity to make sustainable, effective reforms to address nursing shortages. IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY: Knowledge users must recognise that a combination of approaches across the gamut of policies that influence nursing workforces is necessary to address nursing shortages. Attention must also focus on factors beyond nursing and healthcare if shortages are to be remedied.

The use of a new technique, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) chemical imaging, has been demonstrated for the enhancement of latent fingermarks on a number of surfaces. Images of untreated fingermarks on glass backgrounds with excellent ridge detail were acquired using infrared chemical imaging. High quality fingermarks on glass backgrounds were also developed using ethyl cyanoacrylate (super glue) fuming and subsequent infrared chemical imaging. This new method allows the collection of images from backgrounds that traditionally pose problems for current fingermark detection methods. The background may, for example, be highly colored, have a complex pattern, or possess other pattern or image characteristics that make it difficult to separate fingermark ridges using traditional optical or luminescent visualization. One background that has proven to be a challenging surface for the development of latent fingermarks is the Australian polymer banknote. To demonstrate the power and applicability of infrared chemical imaging, fingermarks fumed with ethyl cyanoacrylate were successfully imaged from Australian polymer banknotes.

Forensic approaches to death, disaster and abuse, edited by Marc Oxenham, Australian Academic Press, 2008, AU$69.95, ISBN: 9781875378906. Forensic approaches to death, disaster and abuse, edited by...

Network forensics is an investigation technique looking at the network traffic generated by a system. PyFlag is a general purpose, open source, forensic package which merges disk forensics, memory forensics and network forensics. This paper describes the PyFlag architecture and in particular how that is used in the network forensics context. The novel processing of HTML pages is described and the PyFlag page rendering is demonstrated. PyFlag's novel processing of complex web applications such as Gmail and other web applications is described. Finally PyFlag's report generation capabilities are demonstrated.

Forensic analysis requires the acquisition and management of many different types of evidence, including individual disk drives, RAID sets, network packets, memory images, and extracted files. Often the same evidence is reviewed by several different tools or examiners in different locations. We propose a backwards-compatible redesign of the Advanced Forensic Format—an open, extensible file format for storing and sharing of evidence, arbitrary case related information and analysis results among different tools. The new specification, termed AFF4, is designed to be simple to implement, built upon the well supported ZIP file format specification. Furthermore, the AFF4 implementation has downward comparability with existing AFF files.

Nile blue A in aqueous solution undergoes spontaneous hydrolysis to the photoluminescent compound Nile red. This reagent provides a simple and safe approach to the detection of latent fingermarks on porous and non-porous surfaces.

Abstract Groups of police officers from two Australian police forces completed a number of psychological tests to determine the stressors of police life and to assess the impact of a number of personality variables on stress appraisals. Work stresses were found to fall into two discernible categories: job content stressors — those which arise from the duties police officers carry out — and job context stressors — those which derive from the nature of the police organizations in which officers perform their duties. All personality measures correlated more highly with job context stressors than with job content stressors, suggesting that the major source of stress for police officers come from the organization in which they work.

Abstract Police officers, in the performance of their duties, face a range of potentially stressful situations and events. These have the capacity to cause significant personal distress, leading to short — and long‐term changes in mood, psychological functioning and social activity. In response to the stresses of the job, officers must utilize any number of coping strategies to deal with their occupational stress. The aim of the present study was to examine the stress‐coping strategies used by a large sample of Australian police personnel. Responses to the Revised Ways of Coping Checklist showed that most officers utilize problem‐focused, direct action coping strategies, with more limited use of social supports, self‐blame and wishful thinking. While their coping behaviours may help them moderate problem‐focused stress concerns, the data suggest that many officers may not deal effectively with their emotion‐focused concerns. These data are examined in the light of the research literature detailing the so‐called police personality.

Clarke's analytical forensic toxicology, edited by Sue Jickells and Adam Negrusz, London, Pharmaceutical Press, 2008, £39.95 (softcover), ISBN 978 0 85369 705 3. In volume 36(2) of our journal I ha...

Online fraud poses a significant problem to society in terms of its monetary losses and the devastating impact on victims. It also poses significant challenges to law enforcement agencies, regarding their ability to investigate crimes which are complex, occur in a virtual environment, incorporate multiple (often international) jurisdictions, and have a very low reporting rate. This paper examines the police response to online fraud. It argues that traditionally, fraud has received little attention and priority from police agencies and this is exacerbated in the online context. In contrast to this, the paper presents the example of Project Sunbird, a partnership between the West Australian Police and the West Australian Department of Commerce which has embraced the use of financial intelligence to proactively contact suspected victims of online fraud. This paper argues that a proactive approach to policing online fraud can have substantial positive effects for police and victims alike.

Police officers are required to carry external loads as part of their occupation. One means of preparing officers to carry loads is through physical conditioning. The aim of this study was to investigate whether strength, power or aerobic endurance had the greatest association with load carriage performance. Retrospective data from 42 male specialist tactical police officers (mean body weight = 88.8±8.25 kg) informed this study. Baseline data were provided for strength (1 Repetition Maximum [RM] bench press, deadlift, squat and pull-up), lower body power (vertical jump, 10m sprint) and aerobic ('beep' test) performance. In addition, officers completed three 5km load carriage trials (3 to 4 months apart) with 25 kg packs as fast as possible. Pearson's correlations were used to look for associations between measures with an analysis of variance used to detect changes in load carriage performance. Alpha levels were set a priori at 0.05. All variables of strength and power were significantly correlated with performance except for 1RM deadlift and the 10m sprint for the last two load carriage trails. Of all fitness measures, aerobic fitness was the most highly significant correlation with the load carriage trials (r=-0.712, -0.709 and -0.711 for trials respectively). Time to completion improved across the three load carriage trials (p<.001). These findings support the approach that optimal load carriage performance may be achieved by performing load carriage tasks in conjunction with aerobic fitness and full body strength/lower limb power training.

Chemical imaging technology is a rapid examination technique that combines molecular spectroscopy and digital imaging, providing information on morphology, composition, structure, and concentration of a material. Among many other applications, chemical imaging offers an array of novel analytical testing methods, which limits sample preparation and provides high-quality imaging data essential in the detection of latent fingerprints. Luminescence chemical imaging and visible absorbance chemical imaging have been successfully applied to ninhydrin, DFO, cyanoacrylate, and luminescent dye-treated latent fingerprints, demonstrating the potential of this technology to aid forensic investigations. In addition, visible absorption chemical imaging has been applied successfully to visualize untreated latent fingerprints.

This paper examines the potential of infrared chemical (hyperspectral) imaging as a technique for the forensic analysis of automotive paint chips in particular, and multicomponent (e.g., layered) samples in general. Improved sample preparation procedures for the infrared analysis of paint chips are detailed, with the recommendation that where mounting resins are chemically incompatible with the sample, it is better to mount and section the sample in a soft wax from which the sections can be removed and pressed into a KBr disk for transmission analysis. Infrared chemical images of multilayered paint chips have been successfully obtained, with the chief advantage over conventional infrared analysis being that thousands of infrared spectra are collected in a few minutes across the whole sample, at a spatial resolution of around 5 microm. As with conventional infrared spectroscopy, chemical species can be identified from their spectra, but the wealth of information available can be also extracted in a number of different ways that make multicomponent spectral (and hence chemical) comparisons between two samples easy to visualize and understand. In one approach, the infrared chemical images of two paint chips being compared side-by-side can be viewed as a "movie," in which each frame is an intensity map of the two samples at a given wavenumber (frequency) value. In another approach, the spectra (pixels) in the image files are classified into chemically similar groups, resulting in a "cluster" image that makes it possible to simultaneously compare all of the layers in two paint chips. These methods are applicable to other multicomponent samples, and also to other chemical imaging techniques.