Azerbaijan Genetic Resources Institute

Free radicals and other active derivatives of oxygen inactivate enzymes and important plant cellular components. Superoxide dismutases (SODs) have been identified as essential components in an organism´s defence mechanism. This study was devoted to the investigation of SOD activity in 13 durum wheat landraces from Iran and Azerbaijan under 2 (drought and normal) conditions. The effect of drought stress on SOD, chlorophyll content index (CCI), and chlorophyll degradation were studied. Significant differences between genotypes and the genotype × environment interaction among SOD and CCI content were identified. The mean comparison showed that the contents of SOD and CCI decreased in susceptible landraces, whereas in resistant and moderately resistant landraces SOD and CCI remained unchanged or increased. The stress tolerance index (STI) for SOD and CCI classified resistant and susceptible landraces into distinct groups. Therefore, these 2 characters can be used as an indirect selection criterion for screening drought-resistant plant materials.

The distribution and survival of trees during the last glacial maximum (LGM) has been of interest to paleoecologists, biogeographers, and geneticists. Ecological niche models that associate species occurrence and abundance with climatic variables are widely used to gain ecological and evolutionary insights and to predict species distributions over space and time. The present study deals with the glacial history of walnut to address questions related to past distributions through genetic analysis and ecological modeling of the present, LGM and Last Interglacial (LIG) periods. A maximum entropy method was used to project the current walnut distribution model on to the LGM (21-18 kyr BP) and LIG (130-116 kyr BP) climatic conditions. Model tuning identified the walnut data set filtered at 10 km spatial resolution as the best for modeling the current distribution and to hindcast past (LGM and LIG) distributions of walnut. The current distribution model predicted southern Caucasus, parts of West and Central Asia extending into South Asia encompassing northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, northwestern Himalayan region, and southwestern Tibet, as the favorable climatic niche matching the modern distribution of walnut. The hindcast of distributions suggested the occurrence of walnut during LGM was somewhat limited to southern latitudes from southern Caucasus, Central and South Asian regions extending into southwestern Tibet, northeastern India, Himalayan region of Sikkim and Bhutan, and southeastern China. Both CCSM and MIROC projections overlapped, except that MIROC projected a significant presence of walnut in the Balkan Peninsula during the LGM. In contrast, genetic analysis of the current walnut distribution suggested a much narrower area in northern Pakistan and the surrounding areas of Afghanistan, northwestern India, and southern Tajikistan as a plausible hotspot of diversity where walnut may have survived glaciations. Overall, the findings suggest that walnut perhaps survived the last glaciations in several refugia across a wide geographic area between 30° and 45° North latitude. However, humans probably played a significant role in the recent history and modern distribution of walnut.

Abstract Development of winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) synthetics started at CIMMYT-Mexico in 2004, when winter durum wheat ( Triticum turgidum ) germplasm from Ukraine and Romania was crossed with Aegilops tauschii accessions from the Caspian Sea region. Chromosomes were doubled after pollination and embryo rescue, but chromosome number and cytological validation was not performed. F 2 populations were grown in Mexico and were shipped to Turkey in 2008. During 2009–2015, these populations were subjected to rigorous pedigree selection under dry, cold, disease-affected environments of the Central Anatolian Plateau. The wide segregation and partial sterility observed in 2009 gradually decreased and, by 2016, most of the F 8 single spike progenies demonstrated good fertility and agronomic performance. Since 2013, lines have been selected from synthetic populations and evaluated at multiple sites. Superior lines were characterized for resistance to leaf, stripe and stem rust, plant height, and reaction to common bunt and soil-borne pathogens. Thousand kernel weight of many lines exceeded 50 g, compared with the check varieties that barely reached 40 g. Threshability of synthetic lines varied from 0 to 95%, demonstrating genetic variation for this important domestication trait. Screening against Hessian fly, sunny pest and Russian wheat aphid identified several resistant genotypes. Both durum and Aegilops parents affected synthetic wheat traits. Several studies are underway to reveal the genetic diversity of synthetic lines and the basis of resistance to diseases and insects. This synthetic germplasm represents a new winter bread wheat parental pool. It is available upon request to interested breeding/research programmes.

Studying domesticated species and their wild relatives allows understanding of the mechanisms of population divergence and adaptation, and identifying valuable genetic resources. Apricot is an important fruit in the Northern hemisphere, where it is threatened by the Plum pox virus (PPV), causing the sharka disease. The histories of apricot domestication and of its resistance to sharka are however still poorly understood. We used 18 microsatellite markers to genotype a collection of 230 wild trees from Central Asia and 142 cultivated apricots as representatives of the worldwide cultivated apricot germplasm; we also performed experimental PPV inoculation tests. The genetic markers revealed highest levels of diversity in Central Asian and Chinese wild and cultivated apricots, confirming an origin in this region. In cultivated apricots, Chinese accessions were differentiated from more Western accessions, while cultivated apricots were differentiated from wild apricots. An approximate Bayesian approach indicated that apricots likely underwent two independent domestication events, with bottlenecks, from the same wild population. Central Asian native apricots exhibited genetic subdivision and high frequency of resistance to sharka. Altogether, our results contribute to the understanding of the domestication history of cultivated apricot and point to valuable genetic diversity in the extant genetic resources of wild apricots.

The Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change Project set out to improve the diversity, quantity, and accessibility of germplasm collections of crop wild relatives (CWR). Between 2013 and 2018, partners in 25 countries, heirs to the globetrotting legacy of Nikolai Vavilov, undertook seed collecting expeditions targeting CWR of 28 crops of global significance for agriculture. Here, we describe the implementation of the 25 national collecting programs and present the key results. A total of 4587 unique seed samples from at least 355 CWR taxa were collected, conserved ex situ, safety duplicated in national and international genebanks, and made available through the Multilateral System (MLS) of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Plant Treaty). Collections of CWR were made for all 28 targeted crops. Potato and eggplant were the most collected genepools, although the greatest number of primary genepool collections were made for rice. Overall, alfalfa, Bambara groundnut, grass pea and wheat were the genepools for which targets were best achieved. Several of the newly collected samples have already been used in pre-breeding programs to adapt crops to future challenges.

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) is an annual, cool-season grain legume playing an important role in human and animal nutrition, as soil fertility maintenance. National lentil improvement program in Azerbaijan is currently focused on extending the genetic base of the lentil collection through the introduction of new breeding lines from ICARDA and involving them into breeding. The present study was aimed to evaluate the performance of lentil collection, mainly comprised of ICARDA-derived breeding lines for yield traits under Azerbaijan condition and assess genetic diversity among them using inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers. Many breeding lines of ICARDA exhibited agro-morphological performance superior to those of the local improved varieties. Our studies confirmed that the genetic base of the studied lentil collection is quite above board. A total of 71 bands were generated using 7 ISSR primers in 47 lentil genotypes, of which 62 were polymorphic. Genetic diversity values varied from 0.61 (UBC 848) to 0.95 (UBC 835), with a mean of 0.81. ISSR dendrogram was able to clearly distinguish all lentil accessions. Clear tendention was observed on clustering of genotypes according to their pedigree or origin with few exeptions. The results obtained from the Principal Coordinate Analysis were consistent with the results of cluster analysis, with minor differences. Breeding lines with high agronomic performance and sufficient genetic distance from this study can be used as appropriate parents to get more heterotic recombinants. This will accelerate the creation of new varieties well adapted to eco-geographic condition of Azerbaijan with stable and high yield.

Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) marker system was used to evaluate the genetic diversity of local and introduced grasspea (Lathyrus sativus L.) genotypes. A total of 144 bands were amplified using 10 ISSR markers, of which 122 were polymorphic among the accessions. The percentage of DNA polymorphism varied from 66.6% to 96%, with a mean of 86%. UBC 857, UBC 810 and UBC 835 with high effective multiplex ratio (EMR), marker index (MI) and resolving power (RP) values were estimated as the most informative primers for distinguishing L. sativus genotypes. High genetic diversity was detected in the grass pea germplasm. The genetic diversity index (GDI) ranged between 0.42 and 0.92, with an average value of 0.75 for the whole collection. The cluster analysis with 5000 bootstrapping value divided grasspea accessions into four major clusters. Most accessions were placed into the same cluster close to each other with regard to their botanical varieties. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) agreed with the cluster analysis and clearly discriminated the accessions into two genetically distinct groups. The first three coordinate axes accounted for 84.3% of the total variation. The result of the cluster and PCoA analyzes underline the importance of consideration of botanical variety traits in grasspea breeding programs. It can be concluded that the present germplasm constitutes an important pool of diversity for further genetic analysis, linkage mapping and breeding activities.

Malaria is a global health problem that causes 1.5-2.7 million deaths worldwide each year. Resistance to antimalarial drugs in malaria parasites and to insecticides in vectors is one of the most serious issues in the fight against this disease. Moreover, the lack of an effective vaccine against malaria is still a major problem. Recent developments in nanotechnology have resulted in new prospects for the fight against malaria, especially by obtaining metal nanoparticles (NPs) that are less toxic, highly biocompatible, environmentally friendly, and less expensive. Numerous studies have been conducted on the synthesis of green NPs using plants and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae, actinomycetes, and viruses). To our knowledge, there is no literature review that compares toxicities and antimalarial effects of some of the existing metallic nanoparticles, revealing their advantages and disadvantages. Hence, the purpose of this work is to assess metal NPs obtained through various green synthesis processes, to display the worth of future malaria research and determine future strategies. Results revealed that there are very few studies on green NPs covering all stages of malaria parasites. Additionally, green metal nanoparticles have yet to be studied for their possible toxic effects on infected as well as healthy erythrocytes. Morever, the toxicities of green metal NPs obtained from various sources differed according to concentration, size, shape, synthesis method, and surface charge, indicating the necessity of optimizing the methods to be used in future studies. It was concluded that studies on the toxic properties of green nanoparticles would be very important for the future.

Common bean has become very popular and widespread among the population since its introduction to Azerbaijan in the second half of the 18th century. The paper represents for the first time the genetic diversity and anthracnose resistance of 37 common bean accessions cultivated in Azerbaijan. ISSR marker characterization in the present study revealed a total of 47 bands, with 33.6% of average polymorphism. The polymorphism information content (PIC) and genetic diversity index (GDI) for each primer were in the range of 0.25-0.48 (mean 0.35) and 0.45-0.73 (mean 0.59), respectively, indicating a moderate level of genetic diversity in the current collection. UNJ tree showed that the common bean accessions tended to cluster according to the local and introduced gene pools, indicating the same original sources of these accessions, which is also supported by PCo analysis. Screening with linked SCAR markers revealed the existence of common bean genotypes with single or multiple Co resistance alleles. Among studied genes Co-4 locus and its alleles were found in all samples, followed by Co-6 (40.5%) and Co-34 (16%). Three genotypes had all studies resistance loci, while 12 had Co-4 and Co-6, and 3 had Co-4 and Co-34. The results could provide valuable information for future common bean breeding activities and conservation. The use of genotypes with two or more resistance genes as donor parents can accelerate the development of new common bean cultivars with durable resistance to anthracnose.

Vaviloid spike branching, also called sham ramification, is a typical trait of Triticum vavilovii Jakubz. and is characterized by a lengthening of the spikelet axis. In this article, we present the results of a study of three triticale–wheat hybrid lines with differences in terms of the manifestation of the vaviloid spike branching. Lines were obtained by crossing triticale with hexaploid wheat, T. aestivum var. velutinum. The parental triticale is a hybrid of synthetic wheat (T. durum × Ae. tauschii var. meyrei) with rye, S. cereale ssp. segetale. Line 857 has a karyotype corresponding to hexaploid wheat and has a spike morphology closest to normal, whereas Lines 808/1 and 844/4 are characterized by the greatest manifestation of vaviloid spike branching. In Lines 808/1 and 844/4, we found the substitution 2RL(2DL). The karyotypes of the latter lines differ in that a pair of telocentric chromosomes 2DS is detected in Line 808/1, and these telocentrics are fused into one unpaired chromosome in Line 844/4. Using molecular genetic analysis, we found a deletion of the wheat domestication gene Q located on 5AL in the three studied hybrid lines. The deletion is local since an analysis of the adjacent gene B1 showed the presence of this gene. We assume that the manifestation of vaviloid spike branching in two lines (808/1 and 844/4) is associated with a disturbance in the joint action of genes Q and AP2L2-2D, which is another important gene that determines spike morphology and is located on 2DL.

The effect of a highly virulent fungus Verticillium dahliae Kleb. VD-11, with non-defoliating strain on polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and the antioxidant enzymes, such as guaiacol peroxidase (POX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), was studied in double haploid cotton variety- Pima 3-79 (Gossypium barbadense L.), highly inbred line TM-1– (Gossypium hirsutum L.), as well as in genotypes CS B-15 and GS B-22, created by the substitution of one chromosome of TM-1 with the chromosome 15 and 22 of Pima 3-79 respectively. The treatment of plants with the pathogen led to an increase in the activity of PPO approximately 1.2 times in the case of TM-1 and CS B-15. However, these changes were insignificant in the case of Pima 3-79 variety, whereas the activity of the enzyme in the case of CS B-22 was decreased apparently. Similar effects were also obtained for POX. After inoculation, the activity of SOD in all genotypes, except CS B-15, was increased. On the contrary, the activity of SOD was decreased in the case of CS B-15 genotype. It was found that plant infection with the pathogen leads to a change in the concentration of free radicals, which, in turn, affects the activity of antioxidant enzymes. The fungal infection also led to the creation of new paramagnetic centers and nanophase crystal-like iron oxide particles in roots, but not in leaves. Keywords: Cotton, Verticillium dahliae, polyphenol oxidase, antioxidant enzymes, Fe-nanoparticles.

Members of the eukaryotic translation initiation complex are co-opted in viral infection, leading to susceptibility in many crop species, including stone fruit trees (Prunus spp.). Therefore, modification of one of those eukaryotic translation initiation factors or changes in their gene expression may result in resistance. We searched the crop and wild Prunus germplasm from the Armeniaca and Amygdalus taxonomic sections for allelic variants in the eIF4E and eIFiso4E genes, to identify alleles potentially linked to resistance to Plum pox virus (PPV). Over one thousand stone fruit accessions (1397) were screened for variation in eIF4E and eIFiso4E transcript sequences which are in single copy within the diploid Prunus genome. We identified new alleles for both genes differing from haplotypes associated with PPV susceptible accessions. Overall, analyses showed that eIFiso4E is genetically more constrained since it displayed less polymorphism than eIF4E. We also demonstrated more variations at both loci in the related wild species than in crop species. As the eIFiso4E translation initiation factor was identified as indispensable for PPV infection, a selection of ten different eIFiso4E haplotypes along 13 accessions were tested by infection with PPV and eight of them displayed a range of reduced susceptibility to resistance, indicating new potential sources of resistance to sharka.

Genetic diversity and fusarium resistance of 50 cultivated chickpea genotypes was studied using ISSR and RAPD markers. The results of both marker systems were consistent with each other, but was somewhat higher for RAPDs. A total of 48 fragments were obtained with both markers together, 32.7% of which were polymorphic. Molecular characterisation through ISSR and RAPD data indicated low genetic variation (GDI=0.39; PIC=0.21) among local and introduced chickpea accessions. The genetic distance values ranged from 0 to 0.134, with a mean of 0.05. The low genetic diversity indicated that new genotypes must be introduced to increase the variability of chickpea germplasm in Azerbaijan. As a result of screening for resistance to fusarium most of genotypes were found to have 600 bp fragment of OPJ20 linked with Foc01 resistance gene, while none of them had resistance gene to Foc4. The results could provide information for future chickpea breeding activities and conservation.

To estimate genetic relationships among 31 cultivated and 34 wild grape accessions originating from regions near the Caspian Sea in the Azerbaijan Republic, RAPD analysis was performed with 27 decamer primers selected from a total of 55 primers. The most discriminating primers were OPC-16, OPF-18 and OPA-17, which showed the highest values of genetic diversity (0.927, 0.914 and 0.909, respectively). The lowest values of diversity pertained to the markers OPA-1 (0.615) and V-20 (0.624). The cluster analysis representing genetic similarity among all selected samples divided the genotypes into nine separate groups at similarity index 0.508. Within the studied Azerbaijan grape populations the highest genetic diversity belonged to the population of cultivated samples originating from the Absheron peninsula, with a diversity index 0.852 and the next ranks were assigned to the wild populations originating from Nabran and Guba regions, with a diversity index 0.824 and 0.793, respectively. The lowest diversity was observed within Davachi individuals, with a diversity index 0.765. The wild population from Azerbaijan was molecularly similar to the cultivated gene pool from this area. This result supported the hypothesis that the southwest of the Caspian Sea is a region where grape was brought into culture. During the analysis a special band was observed which could be used in identifying wild and cultivated grape accessions with high or low resveratrol content. The results of this work clearly indicated that the RAPD analysis can be used to estimate genotypic similarities, genetic diversity and for clustering cultivated and wild grape accessions.

Objective: BCR-ABL1 kinase domain (KD) mutations can lead to resistance to first- and second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Here, we present the first report of the spectrum of mutations in the BCR-ABL1 KD of CML patients from Azerbaijan. Materials and methods: Samples for mutation screening were obtained from patients experiencing resistance to first line TKIs or from patients in acceleration phase (AP) or blast crisis (BC) at the time of diagnosis. The cDNA region corresponding to BCR-ABL1 KD was sequenced by pyrosequencing method. The χ 2 test was used to assess the association of categorical variables between mutation-positive and -negative groups. In addition, the Kaplan-Meier method was applied to generate survival curves. Results: Eight different point mutations were identified in 22 (13.4%) out of 163 CML patients experiencing resistance to TKIs. The types of mutations detected were as follows: Contact binding site mutations 50% (11), SH2 domain mutations 27.4% (six), P-loop mutations 18.1% (four), and SH3 domain mutations accounting for 4.5% (one). The most common mutation was T315I, accounting for 5% ( n = 8) of all patients. Significant association was identified between BCR-ABL1 mutations and additional chromosomal aberrations as well as between the mutations and disease phases ( p < 0.05). Twelve out of 22 patients with BCR-ABL1 mutations and seven out of eight with T315I were in BC. Overall survival (OS) of the patients with BCR-ABL1 mutations was significantly lower comparing to the patients with no mutation ( p < 0.05) and 8 patients with T315I mutation presented OS of 0%. Conclusion: T315I was the most commonly identified BCR-ABL1 mutation in TKI-resistant CML patients of Azerbaijani origin, being associated with disease progression and poor OS.

The principal aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between miR-149 T>C (rs2292832) and miR-196a2 C>T (rs11614913) small non-coding RNA polymorphisms and the risk of developing CRC in the Azerbaijani population. The study included 120 patients diagnosed with CRC and 125 healthy individuals. Peripheral blood samples were collected from all the subjects in EDTA tubes and DNA extraction was performed by salting out. Polymorphisms were determined using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method. While comparing without gender distinction no statistical correlation was found between the heterozygous TC (OR = 0.66; 95% CI = 0.37–1.15; p = 0.142), mutant CC (OR = 1.23; 95% CI = 0.62–2.45; p = 0.550), and mutant C (OR = 1.03; 95% CI = 0.72–1.49; p = 0.859) alleles of the miR-149 gene and the CT (OR = 1.23; 95% CI = 0.69–2.20; p = 0.485), mutant TT (OR = 1.29; 95% CI = 0.67–2.47; p = 0.452), and mutant T (OR = 1.17; 95% CI = 0.82–1.67; p = 0.388) alleles of the miR-196a2 gene and the risk of CRC. However, among women, miR-149 TC (OR = 0.43; 95% CI = 0.19–1.01; p = 0.048) correlated with a reduced risk of CRC, whereas miR-196a2 CT (OR = 2.77; 95% CI = 1.13–6.79; p = 0.025) correlated with an increased risk of CRC. Our findings indicated that miR-149 T>C (rs2292832) might play a protective role in the development of CRC in female patients, whereas the miR-196a2 (rs11614913) polymorphism is associated with an increased risk of CRC in women in the Azerbaijani population, highlighting the importance of gender dimorphism in cancer etiology.

Abstract The conservation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) is essential for global food and nutrition security, climate resilience and sustainable agriculture. This study presents a monitoring and evaluation (M&E) framework applied across 20 countries in the Global South to assess the state of ex situ PGRFA conservation. Using mixed methods, we collected quantitative and qualitative data on genebank performance, validated operational status, and identified specific needs of genebanks. Our findings demonstrate the practical use of this M&E framework for genebanks to assess efficiency and effectiveness in genebank management, while also guiding targeted capacity development and context-specific interventions to address persistent challenges. We recommend adopting the approaches described in this study, including genebank reviews and the review checklist, to support more systematic and evidence-based assessment of genebanks. Aligning national efforts with global conservation objectives will help generate actionable recommendations to strengthen genebanks and ensure the long-term conservation and availability of PGRFA.

Plant–pathogen interactions involve intricate signaling networks that coordinate the plant immune response. Recognition of pathogens through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) triggers activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, initiating a cascade of defense mechanisms. Central to these responses is the synthesis of phytohormones such as salicylic acid (SA), auxins–indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and gibberellins–gibberellic acid (GA), pivotal for immune activation. This review explores the multifaceted roles of these phytohormones in plant immunity, drawing on recent findings from Arabidopsis thaliana and Gossypium hirsutum studies. The review discusses MAPK-mediated activation of TGA1/4 (TGACG sequence-specific binding protein 1/4) transcription factors enhancing SA biosynthesis via isochorismate synthase (ICS). Increased SA levels activate NPR1, promoting gene expression in immune-related pathways including systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Concurrently, pathogen-induced IAA synthesis activates auxin-responsive genes crucial for immune responses. Elevated biosynthesis of IAA from L-tryptophan activates these genes by degrading repressor molecules. IAA acts antagonistically to SA, conserving energy during pathogen infection. Additionally, GA is vital for plant growth and development, operating DELLA (Asp–Glu–Leu–Leu–Ala) protein degradation with the formation of a complex with gibberellin insensitive dwarf 1 (GID1). Once DELLA prevents releasing GA-related response reactions, it is extremelly crucial for GA actions. In general, the review explores the intricate interplay between SA, IAA, and GA, highlighting SA's antagonistic regulation of GA signaling and the synergistic effects of auxin and GA. Understanding these hormone–mediated pathways is crucial for elucidating precise mechanisms underlying plant immunity. Insights gained could inform strategies to enhance plant resistance against pathogens, contributing to sustainable agriculture and global food security efforts.

This study explores the genetic diversity of soybean (Glycine max) genotypes using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (A-PAGE) to analyze globulin reserve proteins. The research utilized 51 soybean genotypes from various origins, including Canada, Turkey, Uzbekistan and others. The A-PAGE method was employed to extract and analyze the globulin storage proteins in the grains of soybean samples. The proteins were categorized into ω, γ, β and α zones, revealing distinct electrophoretic patterns among the genotypes. A total of 22 spectra and 107 patterns were identified, demonstrating polymorphism based on the frequency of occurrence. The genetic diversity index, calculated using Nei’s formula, indicated varying levels of genetic diversity across the different zones.

Azerbaijan considered as the primary or secondary center of origin, domestication and diversity of many fruits, grapevines and nuts, taking their basis from the wild relatives of the region. The landraces and wild relatives in Azerbaijan are conserved in protected areas and botanical gardens, as well as ex-situ and on-farm conservation in field collections of the National Gene Bank. At present, more than 4000 accessions of fruit plants are maintained in field collections of GRI (Genetic Resources Institute (GRI), Ministry of Science and Education Republic of Azerbaijan). GRI maintains valuable collections of apple, pear, quince, medlar, pomegranate, grapevine, fig, cherry, apricot, almond, pistachio, almond, pomegranate, sea-buckthorn and other crops. Despite the broad utilization of native varieties in conventional agriculture, the traditions of usage of wild relatives for food, food additives or environmental purposes are still kept among populations like fresh fruit consumption as a raw material for processing and making traditional food, including in a food chain as a feed for domestic animals, initial materials for breeding. Except for fruit utilization, wild relatives are also used as rootstocks, live fences; honey, decorative and medical plants, and wind-brake in plantations.