California Sea Grant

One-hundred-ninety-four eligible and evaluable patients with histologically confirmed locally unresectable adenocarcinoma of the pancreas were randomly assigned to therapy with high-dose (6000 rads) radiation therapy alone, to moderate-dose (4000 rads) radiation + 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), and to high-dose radiation plus 5-FU. Median survival with radiation alone was only 51/2 months from date of diagnosis. Both 5-FU-containing treatment regimens produced a highly significant survival improvement when compared with radiation alone. Forty percent of patients treated with the combined regimens were still living at one year compared with 10% of patients treated with radiation only. Survival differences between 4000 rads plus 5-FU and 6000 rads plus 5-FU were not significant with an overall median survival of ten months. Significant prognostic variables, in addition to treatment, were pretreatment performance status and pretreatment CEA level.

Soil is the largest terrestrial reservoir of organic carbon and is central for climate change mitigation and carbon-climate feedbacks. Chemical and physical associations of soil carbon with minerals play a critical role in carbon storage, but the amount and global capacity for storage in this form remain unquantified. Here, we produce spatially-resolved global estimates of mineral-associated organic carbon stocks and carbon-storage capacity by analyzing 1144 globally-distributed soil profiles. We show that current stocks total 899 Pg C to a depth of 1 m in non-permafrost mineral soils. Although this constitutes 66% and 70% of soil carbon in surface and deeper layers, respectively, it is only 42% and 21% of the mineralogical capacity. Regions under agricultural management and deeper soil layers show the largest undersaturation of mineral-associated carbon. Critically, the degree of undersaturation indicates sequestration efficiency over years to decades. We show that, across 103 carbon-accrual measurements spanning management interventions globally, soils furthest from their mineralogical capacity are more effective at accruing carbon; sequestration rates average 3-times higher in soils at one tenth of their capacity compared to soils at one half of their capacity. Our findings provide insights into the world's soils, their capacity to store carbon, and priority regions and actions for soil carbon management.

Several schemes have been developed to help select the locations of marine reserves. All of them combine social, economic, and biological criteria, and few offer any guidance as to how to prioritize among the criteria identified. This can imply that the relative weights given to different criteria are unimportant. Where two sites are of equal value ecologically, then socioeconomic criteria should dominate the choice of which should be protected. However, in many cases, socioeconomic criteria are given equal or greater weight than ecological considerations in the choice of sites. This can lead to selection of reserves with little biological value that fail to meet many of the desired objectives. To avoid such a possibility, we develop a series of criteria that allow preliminary evaluation of candidate sites according to their relative biological values in advance of the application of socioeconomic criteria. We include criteria that, while not strictly biological, have a strong influence on the species present or ecological processes. Our scheme enables sites to be assessed according to their biodiversity, the processes which underpin that diversity, and the processes that support fisheries and provide a spectrum of other services important to people. Criteria that capture biodiversity values include biogeographic representation, habitat representation and heterogeneity, and presence of species or populations of special interest (e.g., threatened species). Criteria that capture sustainability of biodiversity and fishery values include the size of reserves necessary to protect viable habitats, presence of exploitable species, vulnerable life stages, connectivity among reserves, links among ecosystems, and provision of ecosystem services to people. Criteria measuring human and natural threats enable candidate sites to be eliminated from consideration if risks are too great, but also help prioritize among sites where threats can be mitigated by protection. While our criteria can be applied to the design of reserve networks, they also enable choice of single reserves to be made in the context of the attributes of existing protected areas. The overall goal of our scheme is to promote the development of reserve networks that will maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at large scales. The values of ecosystem goods and services for people ultimately depend on meeting this objective.

Online social media tools can be some of the most rewarding and informative resources for scientists-IF you know how to use them.

Using ecological criteria as a theoretical framework, we describe the steps involved in designing a network of marine reserves for conservation and fisheries management. Although we describe the case study of the Channel Islands, the approach to marine reserve design may be effective in other regions where traditional management alone does not sustain marine resources. A group of agencies, organizations, and individuals established clear goals for marine reserves in the Channel Islands, including conservation of ecosystem biodiversity, sustainable fisheries, economic viability, natural and cultural heritage, and education. Given the constraints of risk management, experimental design, monitoring, and enforcement, scientists recommended at least one, but no more than four, reserves in each biogeographic region. In general, the percentage of an area to be included in a reserve network depends on the goals. In the Channel Islands, after consideration of both conservation goals and the risk from human threats and natural catastrophes, scientists recommended reserving an area of 30–50% of all representative habitats in each biogeographic region. For most species of concern, except pinnipeds and seabirds, information about distributions, dispersal, and population growth was limited. As an alternative to species distribution information, suitable habitats for species of concern were used to locate potential reserve sites. We used a simulated annealing algorithm to identify potential reserve network scenarios that would represent all habitats within the smallest area possible. The analysis produced an array of potential reserve network scenarios that all met the established goals.

Marine reserves are being established worldwide in response to a growing recognition of the conservation crisis that is building in the oceans. However, designation of reserves has been largely opportunistic, or protective measures have been implemented (often overlapping and sometimes in conflict) by different entities seeking to achieve different ends. This has created confusion among both users and enforcers, and the proliferation of different measures provides a false sense of protection where little is offered. This paper sets out a procedure grounded in current understanding of ecological processes, that allows the evaluation and selection of reserve sites in order to develop functional, interconnected networks of fully protected reserves that will fulfill multiple objectives. By fully protected we mean permanently closed to fishing and other resource extraction. We provide a framework that unifies the central aims of conservation and fishery management, while also meeting other human needs such as the provision of ecosystem services (e.g., maintenance of coastal water quality, shoreline protection, and recreational opportunities). In our scheme, candidate sites for reserves are evaluated against 12 criteria focused toward sustaining the biological integrity and productivity of marine systems at both local and regional scales. While a limited number of sites will be indispensable in a network, many will be of similar value as reserves, allowing the design of numerous alternative, biologically adequate networks. Devising multiple network designs will help ensure that ecological functionality is preserved throughout the socioeconomic evaluation process. Too often, socioeconomic criteria have dominated the process of reserve selection, potentially undermining their efficacy. We argue that application of biological criteria must precede and inform socioeconomic evaluation, since maintenance of ecosystem functioning is essential for meeting all of the goals for reserves. It is critical that stakeholders are fully involved throughout this process. Application of the proposed criteria will lead to networks whose multifunctionality will help unite the objectives of different management entities, so accelerating progress toward improved stewardship of the oceans.

Improved management approaches are needed to reduce the rate at which humans are depleting exploited marine populations and degrading marine ecosystems. Networks of no-take marine reserves are promising management tools because of their potential to (1) protect coastal ecosystem structure and functioning, (2) benefit exploited populations and fisheries, (3) improve scientific understanding of marine ecosystems, and (4) provide enriched opportunities for non-extractive human activities. By protecting marine ecosystems and their populations, no-take reserve networks can reduce risk by providing important insurance for fishery managers against overexploitation of individual populations. Replicated reserves also foster strong scientific testing of fishery and conservation management strategies. Reserve networks will require social acceptance, adequate enforcement, and effective scientific evaluation to be successful. Processes for reserve establishment should accommodate adaptive management so boundaries and regulations can be modified to enhance performance. However, even well-designed reserve networks will require continued conservation efforts outside reserve boundaries to be effective. Establishing networks of no-take reserves is a process-oriented, precautionary management strategy that protects functional attributes of marine ecosystems. As an addition to fishery management practices and other conservation efforts, no-take reserve networks may improve the status of exploited populations while conserving marine resources for future generations.

Substantial quantities of small plastic particles, termed "microplastic," have been found in many areas of the world ocean, and have accumulated in particularly high densities on the surface of the subtropical gyres. While plastic debris has been documented on the surface of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (NPSG) since the early 1970s, the ecological implications remain poorly understood. Organisms associated with floating objects, termed the "rafting assemblage," are an important component of the NPSG ecosystem. These objects are often dominated by abundant and fast-growing gooseneck barnacles (Lepas spp.), which predate on plankton and larval fishes at the sea surface. To assess the potential effects of microplastic on the rafting community, we examined the gastrointestinal tracts of 385 barnacles collected from the NPSG for evidence of plastic ingestion. We found that 33.5% of the barnacles had plastic particles present in their gastrointestinal tract, ranging from one plastic particle to a maximum of 30 particles. Particle ingestion was positively correlated to capitulum length, and no blockage of the stomach or intestines was observed. The majority of ingested plastic was polyethylene, with polypropylene and polystyrene also present. Our results suggest that barnacle ingestion of microplastic is relatively common, with unknown trophic impacts on the rafting community and the NPSG ecosystem.

The Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus) and other reef fishes aggregate in large numbers at specific locations and times to spawn. In Belize, as in the rest of the Caribbean, about one-third of the grouper spawning aggregations have disappeared due to overfishing. One of the last spawning aggregations still viable in Belize has decreased from 15,000 to fewer than 3,000 Nassau groupers in the last 25 years, a decline of more than 80%. The spawning aggregation was still open to fishing in January 2001, with a fishing quota of 900 groupers, which represented about 30% of the aggregation. The actual catch was at least 300 groupers. Fisheries models predict that, if fishing continues, the spawning aggregation will disappear by 2013, and the fishery will be abandoned by 2009 at the latest. Unsustainable fishing will eliminate the spawning aggregations in Belize, with subsequent negative effects on the grouper populations in the region. Since most of the spawning aggregations in Belize have now been fished out, it is necessary to protect the remaining spawning aggregations by closing these sites to fishing. A fishery closure would reduce income to some fishers, but a simple economic analysis of the fishery, and of an ecotourism alternative, shows that groupers are worth approximately 20 times more alive than when fished.

A comparison is presented of 93 studies that conducted tests of volatility-forecasting methods on a wide range of financial asset returns. The survey found that option-implied volatility provides more accurate forecasts than time-series models. Among the time-series models, no model is a clear winner, although a possible ranking is as follows: historical volatility, generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity, and stochastic volatility. The survey produced some practical suggestions for volatility forecasting.

OBJECTIVE: Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) pre-exposure prophylaxis decreases sexual acquisition of HIV infection. We sought to evaluate the renal safety of TDF in HIV-uninfected persons. DESIGN AND METHODS: The Iniciativa Profilaxis Pre-Exposición (iPrEx) study randomly assigned 2499 HIV-seronegative men and transgender women who have sex with men (MSM) to receive oral daily TDF coformulated with emtricitabine (FTC/TDF) or placebo. Serum creatinine and phosphorus during randomized treatment and after discontinuation were measured, and creatinine clearance (CrCl) was estimated by the Cockcroft-Gault equation. Indicators of proximal renal tubulopathy (fractional excretion of phosphorus and uric acid, urine protein, and glucose) were measured in a substudy. RESULTS: There was a small but statistically significant decrease in CrCl from baseline in the active arm, compared to placebo, which was first observed at week 4 (mean change: -2.4 vs. -1.1 ml/min; P=0.02), persisted through the last on-treatment visit (mean change: +0.3 vs. +1.8 ml/min; P=0.02), and resolved after stopping pre-exposure prophylaxis (mean change: -0.1 vs. 0.0 ml/min; P=0.83). The effect was confirmed when stratifying by drug detection. The effect of FTC/TDF on CrCl did not vary by race, age, or history of hypertension. There was no difference in serum phosphate trends between the treatment arms. In the substudy, two participants receiving placebo had indicators of tubulopathy. CONCLUSIONS: In HIV-seronegative MSM, randomization to FTC/TDF was associated with a very mild nonprogressive decrease in CrCl that was reversible and managed with routine serum creatinine monitoring.

Worldwide, chronic overfishing has depleted populations of large predatory reef fishes and caused unexpected, top-down changes in coral reef ecosystems. Groupers are especially susceptible to overexploitation, because they aggregate to reproduce at specific locations and times. An understanding of the spatial dynamics of these fishes is critical for fisheries management and conservation. However, movements and migration dynamics of endangered reef fishes are poorly known. We show, using acoustic telemetry, that Nassau groupers Epinephelus striatus exhibit highly synchronised migration to spawning sites, despite their otherwise solitary habits. Reproductive adults leave their individual territories in shallow waters near the winter full moons, and migrate to the same spawning site up to 4 times yr -1 . At the spawning site, a remarkable population-wide depth change occurs within an hour as individuals dive to a maximum depth of 255 m. Our results greatly expand the previously known migration frequency and depth range of this species, and reveal an unexpected yet predictable complexity of adult fish migration between habitats. Effective conservation of this threatened species requires that deeper reefs and the timing of migration events be incorporated into fisheries management plans.

Recent droughts raise global concern over potential biodiversity loss and mitigating impacts to vulnerable species has become a management priority. However, drought impacts on populations are difficult to predict, in part, because habitat refuges can buffer organisms from harsh environmental conditions. In a global change context, more extreme droughts may turn previously suitable habitats into ecological traps, where vulnerable species can no longer persist. Here, we explore the impacts of California's recent record-breaking drought on endangered juvenile Coho salmon. We estimated the variability of cumulative salmon survival using mark-recapture of nearly 20,000 tagged fish in intermittent stream pools during a 7-year period encompassing drought and non-drought conditions. We then determined the relative importance of physical habitat, streamflow, precipitation, landscape, and biological characteristics that may limit survival during drought. Our most striking result was an increase in the number of pools with reduced or zero survival during drought years and a coincident increase in spatial variability in survival among study reaches. In nearly half of the stream pools, salmon survival during drought was similar to mean survival of pools assessed during non-drought years, indicating some pools had remarkable resistance (ability to withstand disturbance) to extreme drought. Lower survival was most attributable to longer duration of disconnection between upstream and downstream habitats, a consequence of increasing drought severity. Our results not only suggest that many pools sustain juvenile salmon in non-drought years transition into ecological traps during drought but also highlight that some pools serve as refuges even under extreme drought conditions. Projected increases in drought severity that lead to longer droughts and greater habitat fragmentation could transform an increasing proportion of suitable habitats into ecological traps. Predicting future impacts of drought on Coho salmon and other sensitive species will require identification and protection of drought refuges and management strategies that prevent further habitat fragmentation.

Abstract Most people visit a science center in order to satisfy specific leisure‐related needs; needs which may or may not actually include science learning. Falk proposed that an individual's identity‐related motivations provide a useful lens through which to understand adult free‐choice science learning in leisure settings. Over a 3‐year period the authors collected in‐depth data on a random sample of visitors to a large recently opened, hands‐on, interactive science center; collecting information on why people visited, what they did within the science center, what they knew about the subject presented upon entering and exiting, and what each individual's long‐term self‐perceptions of their own learning was. Presented is a qualitative analysis of visitor interviews collected roughly 2 years after the initial visit. Although there was evidence for a range of science learning outcomes, outcomes did appear to be strongly influenced by visitor's entering identity‐related motivations. However, the data also suggested that not only were the motivational goals of a science center visit important in determining outcomes, so too were the criteria by which visitors judged satisfaction of those goals; in particular whether goal satisfaction required external or merely internal validation. The implications for future informal science education research and practice are discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47:194–212, 2010

Bays and estuaries play important roles in the life history of leopard sharks Triakis semifasciata, yet these coastal environments are among those most impacted by human activity. To better understand habitat use, spatial associations, and ecological roles of leopard sharks in estuarine environments, movements of leopard sharks were studied in Elkhorn Slough, California, USA. A total of 21 female leopard sharks (78 to 140 cm total length) were tagged with acoustic transmitters and tracked from August 2003 to February 2005. Eight sharks were manually tracked for 20 to 71.5 h, and 13 sharks were monitored for 4 to 280 d using an array of acoustic receivers. Female leopard sharks exhibited a high degree of fidelity to Elkhorn Slough. The distribution of tagged sharks changed seasonally and was likely associated with changes in temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen. Sharks used the area that comprises Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve (ESNERR) extensively throughout the year, but especially during spring and summer. When sharks occupied ESNERR, their habitat use was tidally influenced, with sharks using low intertidal mudflats extensively when available. Sharks using the main channel tended to remain in subtidal habitats at all tidal levels. These results suggest that efforts to protect important leopard shark habitats in bays and estuaries should focus on preserving and restoring intertidal mudflats.

In patients with nonresectable cancer quantitated suspensions of cells from their own tumor were transplanted subcutaneously in serial dilutions and observed for growth. In parallel were implants of tumor cells mixed with the patient's own leukocytes. Comparison revealed an inhibition of tumor cell growth by the admixed leukocytes in half of the 41 patients who were suitable for evaluation. In 21 of these patients there was a third parallel series of autotransplants of tumor cells mixed with autologous plasma. The plasma inhibited tumor cell growth in only 7, and only in patients whose leukocytes were also inhibitory. In 9 patients there was a row of transplants consisting of autologous cancer cells mixed with homologous leukocytes from a healthy donor. Results in this group showed no consistent pattern. Similar suspensions of tumor cells, with and without admixed leukocytes, were homotransplanted subcutaneously to patients with advanced cancer. Only 9 of these studies gave evaluatable homograft nodules but 7 of them showed evidence of inhibition of the implanted cancer cells by the leukocytes of the cancer donor. The studies are not sufficient in number to be statistically significant, but they suggest that the leukocytes (? lymphocytes) of cancer patients have a specific inhibitory effect on the growth of the cancer cells of that individual.

This analysis tests the proposition that women wanting their pregnancies and subsequent births behave differently during their pregnancies than other women. The data are drawn from the National Natality Survey conducted by the US National Center for Health Statistics a follow-back survey based on a probability sample of 9941 live births that occurred in the US in 1980. A sample of 7825 remained after exclusion of out-of-wedlock births. Pregnancy was measured with a series of questions directed towards the period previous to the pregnancy. Almost 29% had wanted to become pregnant but at a later time. 6.3% did not want to become pregnant at the time they did or ever. 31.35 of the women overall had smoked before their pregnancy and only 16% of these quit after pregnancy confirmation although the mean number of cigarettes smoked decreased. Variables indicating planning status and the tendency to seek prenatal care affected independently (although slightly) the probability that a prepregnant smoker would quit. The impact of pregnancy wantedness was smaller than anticipated with regard to the maternal behaviors examined. The degree of effectiveness of pregnancy planning could be underestimated by the studys elimination of unwanted and aborted pregnancies and by inaccuracies caused by maternal denial of pregnancy wantedness.

Spleen cell cultures derived from animals infected 6 d earlier with Listeria monocytogenes produced 10-20-fold more murine interferon gamma (MuIFN gamma) than spleen cells from nonimmune mice in response to stimulation with T cell mitogens. A striking temporal association was found between the enhanced synthesis of MuIFN gamma and the development of anti-Listeria immunity in that both the potential for increased MuIFN gamma production and the generation of Listeria-protective T cells developed and then decayed in unison. Treatment of spleen cells with monoclonal anti-Thy-1.2 plus complement virtually abolished the ability of cells from Listeria-immune mice to synthesize MuIFN gamma. The T cells producing MuIFN gamma were found to be more susceptible to complement-mediated lysis with monoclonal anti-Lyt-1.2 than with monoclonal anti-Lyt-2.2. The production of MuIFN gamma was not affected by treating spleen cells with anti-IgG antisera or with a monoclonal antibody directed against I-A specificities. MuIFN gamma was detected 4 h after the beginning of mitogenic stimulation of spleen cell cultures, and peak levels of MuIFN gamma were reached by 18 h. The IFN synthesized by mitogen-induced spleen cells derived from Listeria-immune mice were relatively labile at pH 2.0 and neutralized by a rabbit anti-MuIFN gamma serum but not by an antiserum having specificities for MuIFN alpha and MuIFN beta. The apparent molecular weight of the MuIFN gamma, as estimated by molecular sieving on a Bio-gel P-60 column, was estimated to be 38,000, and the isoelectric point as determined by chromatofocusing was extremely heterogeneous, ranging between pH 5.0 and pH 7.0.

Abstract Strongylocentrotus franciscanus (248 ± 76 g wet body weight, mean and standard deviation) were maintained in the laboratory at 12.9 and 16.1 C and fed either Nereocystis luetkeana or a prepared feed for 4 mo (July through October). The size and histological condition of the gonads of an initial sample, the experimental animals, and a sample from the commercial fishery were evaluated. The gonad index of experimental S. franciscanus increased from an initial 3.4%± 1.4 to 19.2%± 3.3 (mean and standard deviation) for the four treatments. The feeding rate was greater for individuals fed N. luetkeana and for both foods at the higher temperature. Gonad production was not significantly different among the experimental treatments, indicating the prepared feed was nutritionally superior to the algal diet and an increase in catabolism at the higher temperature balanced the increase in food intake. Histological preparations determined the urchin gonads developed from an initial spent condition to the premature stage for both experimental and fishery samples, indicating neither food or temperature affected gametogenesis.

As the climate evolves over the next century, the interaction of accelerating sea level rise (SLR) and storms, combined with confining development and infrastructure, will place greater stresses on physical, ecological, and human systems along the ocean-land margin. Many of these valued coastal systems could reach "tipping points," at which hazard exposure substantially increases and threatens the present-day form, function, and viability of communities, infrastructure, and ecosystems. Determining the timing and nature of these tipping points is essential for effective climate adaptation planning. Here we present a multidisciplinary case study from Santa Barbara, California (USA), to identify potential climate change-related tipping points for various coastal systems. This study integrates numerical and statistical models of the climate, ocean water levels, beach and cliff evolution, and two soft sediment ecosystems, sandy beaches and tidal wetlands. We find that tipping points for beaches and wetlands could be reached with just 0.25 m or less of SLR (~ 2050), with > 50% subsequent habitat loss that would degrade overall biodiversity and ecosystem function. In contrast, the largest projected changes in socioeconomic exposure to flooding for five communities in this region are not anticipated until SLR exceeds 0.75 m for daily flooding and 1.5 m for storm-driven flooding (~ 2100 or later). These changes are less acute relative to community totals and do not qualify as tipping points given the adaptive capacity of communities. Nonetheless, the natural and human built systems are interconnected such that the loss of natural system function could negatively impact the quality of life of residents and disrupt the local economy, resulting in indirect socioeconomic impacts long before built infrastructure is directly impacted by flooding.