Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment

The aerosolization process of fungal propagules of three species (Aspergillus versicolor, Penicillium melinii, and Cladosporium cladosporioides) was studied by using a newly designed and constructed aerosolization chamber. We discovered that fungal fragments are aerosolized simultaneously with spores from contaminated agar and ceiling tile surfaces. Concentration measurements with an optical particle counter showed that the fragments are released in higher numbers (up to 320 times) than the spores. The release of fungal propagules varied depending on the fungal species, the air velocity above the contaminated surface, and the texture and vibration of the contaminated material. In contrast to spores, the release of fragments from smooth surfaces was not affected by air velocity, indicating a different release mechanism. Correlation analysis showed that the number of released fragments cannot be predicted on the basis of the number of spores. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays with monoclonal antibodies produced against Aspergillus and Penicillium fungal species showed that fragments and spores share common antigens, which not only confirmed the fungal origin of the fragments but also established their potential biological relevance. The considerable immunological reactivity, the high number, and the small particle size of the fungal fragments may contribute to human health effects that have been detected in buildings with mold problems but had no scientific explanation until now. This study suggests that future fungal spore investigations in buildings with mold problems should include the quantitation of fungal fragments.

The renovation of a building involves not just the fulfilment of functional requirements, but also considerations such as energy consumption, investment costs, environmental impact and wellbeing. As things stand, new design methods and tools are needed, and the aim of the research presented in this article was to develop a multicriteria tool, MultiOpt, for the optimization of renovation operations, with an emphasis on building envelopes, heating and cooling loads and control strategies. MultiOpt is based on existing assessment software and methods: it uses a genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) coupled to TRNSYS, and economic and environmental databases. This article illustrates its utilization in the renovation of a school in the southern French city of Nice which was representative of France’s building stock. The study started with the monocriterion optimization of energy consumption, cost, thermal comfort, and life-cycle environmental impact. It then moved onto multicriteria optimizations. The monocriterion analyses focussed on the building’s characteristics and performance; the multicriteria analyses were concerned with the interactions between the different objectives, and with identifying their convergences and divergences. The results demonstrated that MultiOpt can be used to compare different combinations of options and constraints, thus constituting a basis for operational decision-making.

The production of solar energy in cities is clearly a way to diminish our dependency to fossil fuels, and is a good way to mitigate global warming by lowering the emission of greenhouse gases. However, what are the impacts of solar panels locally ? To evaluate their influence on urban weather, it is necessary to parameterize their effects within the surface schemes that are coupled to atmospheric models. The present paper presents a way to implement solar panels in the Town Energy Balance scheme, taking account of the energy production (for thermal and photovoltaic panels), the impact on the building below and feedback towards the urban micro-climate through radiative and convective fluxes. A scenario of large but realistic deployment of solar panels on the Paris metropolitan area is then simulated. It is shown that solar panels, by shading the roofs, slightly increases the need for domestic heating (3%). In summer however, the solar panels reduce the energy needed for air-conditioning (by 12%) and also the Urban Heat Island (UHI): 0.2K by day and up to 0.3K at night. These impacts are larger than those found in previous works, because of the use of thermal panels (that are more efficient than photovoltaic panels) and the geographical position of Paris, which is relatively far from the sea. This means that it is not influenced by sea breezes, and hence that its UHI is stronger than for a coastal city of the same size. But this also means that local adaptation strategies aiming to decrease the UHI will have more potent effects. In summary, the deployment of solar panels is good both globally, to produce renewable energy (and hence to limit the warming of the climate) and locally, to decrease the UHI, especially in summer, when it can constitute a health threat.

This paper discusses daylight glare as a source of visual discomfort in terms of glare from the unobstructed sky and not glare related to direct or reflected sunlight. There is a difference between the glare experienced from a window and the glare experienced from a large source of artificial light of the same subtended area as the sky, due to the pyschological differences in the visual content of the field of view. There is also a difference in the discomfort glare produced by one small source or a number of small sources and a source with the same glare index subtending a large solid angle, due to the effect of the larger source on the adaptation level of the visual mechanism. The paper reviews the laboratory studies using artificial light sources of large area which were carried out in England and the USA and also the studies using daylight seen through real windows which were carried out in France and in England independently. The link between the practical studies and the laboratory studies is indicated and the derivation of quantitative requirements is shown. The analysis of the theoretical results indicates the effect of the various parameters involved. The conclusion is that discomfort glare from a single window (except for a rather small one) is practically independent of size and distance from the observer but is critically dependent on the sky luminance. Practical guidance is given on the design of windows and their surroundings to reduce the problems of glare from the sky, which is otherwise certain to be uncomfortable for a very large part of the year. The requirements for the balance of interior and exterior luminances are discussed, and a method of calculation and its practical application is put forward.

Monolithic pectin aerogels, aeropectins, were prepared via dissolution-gelation-coagulation and subsequent drying with supercritical CO2. Aeropectin had pore sizes that varied from mesopores to small macropores and compression moduli in the range from 4 to 18 MPa. Aeropectins show plastic deformation up to 60% strain before the pore walls collapse. Pectin aerogels have a thermal conductivity below that of air in ambient conditions, making them new thermal superinsulating fully biomass-based materials. The contribution of gas and solid conduction plus radiative heat transfer were determined and discussed.

A three-dimensional representation of the microstructure of porous Vycor glass was generated from a transmission electron micrograph, and was analysed to compute the locations of all capillary-condensed water as a function of relative humidity. On solid surfaces where capillary-condensed water was not present, an adsorbed water layer, whose thickness is a function of relative humidity, was placed. As a function of relative humidity, fixed pressures were specified in all capillary-condensed water, and the change in specific surface free energy with relative humidity was taken into account for the adsorbed water layers. New finite-element codes were developed to determine the drying shrinkage, in response to the changes in the specific surface free energy of the adsorbed water layers and to the fixed pressures in the capillary condensed water. Existing finite-element and finite-difference codes were used to evaluate the elastic moduli, the electrical and thermal conductivity, and the fluid permeability of the material. Bulk properties such as fluid permeability and electrical and thermal conductivity agreed well with experiment. By adjusting the elastic moduli of the solid backbone, which are not experimentally determined quantities, the computed porous glass elastic moduli, and computed low and high relative humidity shrinkage all agreed well with experimental values. At intermediate relative humidities, the agreement for shrinkage was worse, partly due to inaccuracies in the simulated water desorption curve, and partly due to the fact that water-induced swelling of the solid backbone, an effect that is probably present in the real material, was not taken into account in the model computations.

Indoor air quality (IAQ), as determined by the concentrations of indoor air pollutants, can be predicted using either physically based mechanistic models or statistical models that are driven by measured data. In comparison with mechanistic models mostly used in unoccupied or scenario-based environments, statistical models have great potential to explore IAQ captured in large measurement campaigns or in real occupied environments. The present study carried out the first literature review of the use of statistical models to predict IAQ. The most commonly used statistical modeling methods were reviewed and their strengths and weaknesses discussed. Thirty-seven publications, in which statistical models were applied to predict IAQ, were identified. These studies were all published in the past decade, indicating the emergence of the awareness and application of machine learning and statistical modeling in the field of IAQ. The concentrations of indoor particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) were the most frequently studied parameters, followed by carbon dioxide and radon. The most popular statistical models applied to IAQ were artificial neural networks, multiple linear regression, partial least squares, and decision trees.

The present review draws together wide-ranging studies performed over the last decades that catalogue the effects of artificial-light-at-night (ALAN) upon living species and their environment. We provide an overview of the tremendous variety of lightdetection strategies which have evolved in living organisms -unicellular, plants and animals, covering chloroplasts (plants), and the plethora of ocular and extra-ocular organs (animals). We describe the visual pigments which permit photo-detection, paying attention to their spectral characteristics, which extend from the ultraviolet into infrared. We discuss how organisms use light information in a way crucial for their development, growth and survival: phototropism, phototaxis, photoperiodism, and synchronization of circadian clocks. These aspects are treated in depth, as their perturbation underlies much of the disruptive effects of ALAN. The review goes into detail on circadian networks in living organisms, since these fundamental features are of critical importance in regulating the interface between environment and body. Especially, hormonal synthesis and secretion are often under circadian and circannual control, hence perturbation of the clock will lead to hormonal imbalance. The review addresses how the ubiquitous introduction of light-emitting diode technology may exacerbate, or in some cases reduce, the generalized ever-increasing light pollution. Numerous examples are given of how widespread exposure to ALAN is perturbing many aspects of plant and animal behaviour and survival: foraging, orientation, migration, seasonal reproduction, colonization and more. We examine the potential problems at the level of individual species and populations and extend the debate to the consequences for ecosystems. We stress, through a few examples, the synergistic harmful effects resulting from the impacts of ALAN combined with other anthropogenic pressures, which often impact the neuroendocrine loops in vertebrates. The article concludes by debating how these anthropogenic changes could be mitigated by more reasonable use of available technology -for example by restricting illumination to more essential areas

Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) are ubiquitous contaminants in indoor environments, emanating from different sources and partitioning among several compartments, including the gas phase, airborne particles, and settled dust. Nevertheless, simultaneous measurements in the three compartments are rarely reported. In this study, we investigated indoor concentrations of a wide range of SVOCs in 30 French dwellings. In settled dust, 40 out of 57 target compounds were detected. The highest median concentrations were measured for phthalates and to a lesser extent for bisphenol A, synthetic musks, some pesticides, and PAHs. Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and diisononyl phthalate (DINP) were the most abundant compounds. A total of 34 target compounds were detected both in the gas phase and airborne particles. The highest concentrations were measured for diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and synthetic musks in the gas phase and for DEHP, DiBP, DBP, and DINP in the airborne particles. This is the first study on the indoor concentrations of a wide range of SVOCs in settled dust, gas phase, and airborne particles collected simultaneously in each dwelling.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The Vesta project aims to assess the role of traffic related air pollution in the occurrence of childhood asthma. DESIGN AND SETTING: Case-control study conducted in five French metropolitan areas between 1998 and 2000. A set of 217 pairs of matched 4 to 14 years old cases and controls were investigated. An index of lifelong exposure to traffic exhausts was constructed, using retrospective information on traffic density close to all home and school addresses since birth; this index was also calculated for the 0-3 years age period to investigate the effect of early exposures. MAIN RESULTS: Adjusted on environmental tobacco smoke, personal and parental allergy, and several confounders, lifelong exposure was not associated with asthma. In contrast, associations before age of 3 were significant: odds ratios for tertiles 2 and 3 of the exposure index, relative to tertile 1, exhibited a positive trend (1.48 (95%CI = 0.7 to 3.0) and 2.28 (1.1 to 4.6)), with greater odds ratios among subjects with positive skin prick tests. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that traffic related pollutants might have contributed to the asthma epidemic that has taken place during the past decades among children.

International audience

Indoor environmental conditions (thermal, noise, light, and indoor air quality) may affect workers' comfort, and consequently their health and well-being, as well as their productivity. This study aimed to assess the relations between perceived indoor environment and occupants' comfort, and to examine the modifying effects of both personal and building characteristics. Within the framework of the European project OFFICAIR, a questionnaire survey was administered to 7441 workers in 167 "modern" office buildings in eight European countries (Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain). Occupants assessed indoor environmental quality (IEQ) using both crude IEQ items (satisfaction with thermal comfort, noise, light, and indoor air quality), and detailed items related to indoor environmental parameters (e.g., too hot/cold temperature, humid/dry air, noise inside/outside, natural/artificial light, odor) of their office environment. Ordinal logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the relations between perceived IEQ and occupants' comfort. The highest association with occupants' overall comfort was found for "noise", followed by "air quality", "light" and "thermal" satisfaction. Analysis of detailed parameters revealed that "noise inside the buildings" was highly associated with occupants' overall comfort. "Layout of the offices" was the next parameter highly associated with overall comfort. The relations between IEQ and comfort differed by personal characteristics (gender, age, and the Effort Reward Imbalance index), and building characteristics (office type and building's location). Workplace design should take into account both occupant and the building characteristics in order to provide healthier and more comfortable conditions to their occupants.

Abstract Purpose Growing awareness of the environmental performance of construction products and buildings brings about the need for a suitable method to assess their environmental performance. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has become a widely recognised and accepted method to assess the burdens and impacts throughout the life cycle. This LCA-based information may be in the form of environmental product declarations (EPD) or product environmental footprints (PEF), based on reliable and verifiable information. All of these use LCA to quantify and report several environmental impact categories and may also provide additional information. To better understand on the one hand existing EPD programmes (EN 15804) for each country and on the other the recent developments in terms of EU reference document (e.g. PEF), the authors decided to write this review paper based on the outcomes of the EPD workshop that was held prior to SB13 Graz conference. Methods This paper presents the state of the art in LCA and an overview of the EPD programmes in five European countries (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland) based on the workshop in the first part and a comprehensive description and comparison of the PEF method and EN 15804 in the second part. In the last part, a general conclusion will wrap up the findings and results will provide a further outlook on future activities. Results and discussion The high number of EPD programmes underlines the fact that there is obviously a demand for assessments of the environmental performance of construction materials. In the comparison between and experiences of the different countries, it can be seen that more similarities than differences exist. A comparison between PEF and EPD shows differences, e.g. LCIA impact categories and recycling methodology. Conclusions Independent of raising awareness of the construction material environmental performance, the existence of so many environmental claims calls for clarification and harmonisation. Additionally, construction materials being assessed in the voluntary approaches have to follow the harmonised approach following the principles of the European Construction Products Regulation (regulated) not to foster barriers of trade. The authors therefore highly appreciate the most recent activities of the sustainability of construction works (CEN/TC 350 committee http://portailgroupe.afnor.fr/public_espacenormalisation/CENTC350/index.html ) currently working on these issues at the EU level. Finally, the LCA community is further encouraged to increase the background life cycle inventory data and life cycle inventory modelling as well as the meaningfulness of certain environmental impact categories, such as toxicity, land use, biodiversity and resource usage.

With the advancement of the semantic web, the construction industry is at a stage where intelligent knowledge management systems can be used. Such systems support more effective collaboration, where virtual teams of skilled users, not software, exchange ideas, decisions, and best practice. To achieve that, there is a need to create consistent semantic representation of construction knowledge. Existing representations, in the form of classification systems and product data models, lack effective modeling of concept semantics—a fundamental requirement for human-based exchange of knowledge. Toward this objective, this paper presents a domain taxonomy that was developed as part of the e-COGNOS project. The taxonomy was developed as a first step in the establishment of domain ontology for construction. The taxonomy was developed to be process-centered and to allow for utilization of already existing classification systems (BS6100, Master Format, and UniClass, for example). The taxonomy uses seven major domains to classify construction concepts: Process, Product, Project, Actor, Resource, Technical Topics, and Systems. The taxonomy was developed and validated through extensive interaction with domain experts. The taxonomy was used to develop a prototype ontology for the construction domain including semantic relationships and axioms. The ontology was used to support several applications in semantic knowledge management as part of the e-COGNOS portal, including semantic indexing and retrieval of information and ontology-based collaborative project development.

Today's existing building stocks are major energy consumers and CO2 emitters, depending on various factors including urban morphology, architectural archetypes, construction technologies, energy systems, and inhabitant behaviour. A large case study based on 96 000 buildings in Paris, France, is the subject of detailed analysis of the existing residential building stock by comparing some environmental metrics of Paris's urban fabric with thermal energy consumption in buildings. The environmental metrics, such as building shape factor and passive volume (for natural ventilation and daylighting), are functions of urban morphology. This comparison of urban forms and heating energy consumption reveals some impacts of urban morphology and building typology on the energy efficiency in the different zones of Paris. The energy efficiency and CO2 emissions related to heating mode and inhabitant behaviour are separated from those linked to urban form and construction technology. Thus, a balanced view of the complex impacts of morphologies, typologies, energy systems, and inhabitant behaviour on energy loads and CO2 emissions is presented, which allows for the optimization of urban form in terms of density, building configuration, and morphology. Similar large-scale simulations can analyse urban form and the mix of building stock as well as the interaction of increased equipment efficiency, alternative energy mix, and inhabitant behaviour. Les parcs bâtis existant aujourd'hui sont d'importants consommateurs d'énergie et émetteurs de CO2, qui dépendent de divers facteurs tels que la morphologie urbaine, les archétypes architecturaux, les technologies de construction, les systèmes énergétiques et le comportement des habitants. Une grande étude de cas basée sur 96 000 immeubles de Paris, en France, fait l'objet d'une analyse détaillée du parc bâti résidentiel existant en comparant certaines métriques environnementales du tissu urbain de Paris à la consommation énergétique thermique des immeubles. Les métriques environnementales, telles que le facteur de forme des bâtiments et le volume passif (pour la ventilation naturelle et l'éclairage du jour), sont des fonctions de la morphologie urbaine. Cette comparaison des formes urbaines et de la consommation énergétique de chauffage révèle certaines incidences de la morphologie urbaine et de la typologie des bâtiments sur le rendement énergétique dans les différents secteurs de Paris. Le rendement énergétique et les émissions de CO2 en rapport avec le mode de chauffage et le comportement des habitants sont distincts du rendement et des émissions liés à la forme urbaine et aux technologies de construction. Est ainsi présentée une vision équilibrée des incidences complexes des morphologies, des typologies, des systèmes énergétiques et des comportements des habitants sur les taux d'utilisation d'énergie et les émissions de CO2, qui autorise l'optimisation de la forme urbaine en termes de densité, de configuration des bâtiments et de morphologie. Des simulations similaires à grande échelle peuvent analyser la forme urbaine et la diversité du parc bâti, mais également les interactions résultant du rendement accru des équipements, des diverses sources d'énergie alternatives utilisées et du comportement des habitants. Mots clés: géométrie des bâtiments, parcs bâtis, forme bâtie, émissions de CO2, coefficient de profondeur, consommation énergétique, performances environnementales, comportement des habitants, typologie, morphologie urbaine

In the European research project OFFICAIR, a procedure was developed to determine associations between characteristics of European offices and health and comfort of office workers, through a checklist and a self-administered questionnaire including environmental, physiological, psychological, and social aspects. This procedure was applied in 167 office buildings in eight European countries (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece, France, Hungary, the Netherlands, and Finland) during the winter of 2011-2012. About 26 735 survey invitation e-mails were sent, and 7441 office workers were included in the survey. Among respondents who rated an overall comfort less than 4 (23%), 'noise (other than from building systems)', air 'too dry', and temperature 'too variable' were the main complaints selected. An increase of perceived control over indoor climate was positively associated with the perceived indoor environment quality. Almost one-third of office workers suffered from dry eyes and headache in the last 4 weeks. Physical building characteristics were associated with occupants' overall satisfaction (acoustical solutions, mold growth, complaints procedure, cleaning activities) and health (number of occupants, lack of operable windows, presence of carpet and cleaning activities). OFFICAIR project provides a useful database to identify stressors related to indoor environmental quality and office worker's health.

Abstract. The use of air-conditioning systems is expected to increase as a consequence of global-scale and urban-scale climate warming. In order to represent future scenarios of urban climate and building energy consumption, the Town Energy Balance (TEB) scheme must be improved. This paper presents a new building energy model (BEM) that has been integrated in the TEB scheme. BEM-TEB makes it possible to represent the energy effects of buildings and building systems on the urban climate and to estimate the building energy consumption at city scale (~10 km) with a resolution of a neighbourhood (~100 m). The physical and geometric definition of buildings in BEM has been intentionally kept as simple as possible, while maintaining the required features of a comprehensive building energy model. The model considers a single thermal zone, where the thermal inertia of building materials associated with multiple levels is represented by a generic thermal mass. The model accounts for heat gains due to transmitted solar radiation, heat conduction through the enclosure, infiltration, ventilation, and internal heat gains. BEM allows for previously unavailable sophistication in the modelling of air-conditioning systems. It accounts for the dependence of the system capacity and efficiency on indoor and outdoor air temperatures and solves the dehumidification of the air passing through the system. Furthermore, BEM includes specific models for passive systems, such as window shadowing devices and natural ventilation. BEM has satisfactorily passed different evaluation processes, including testing its modelling assumptions, verifying that the chosen equations are solved correctly, and validating the model with field data.

Abstract Urban stakeholders require quantitative and robust tools to implement new paths to urban sustainability. Urban form, the spatial distribution of activities and urban organization are crucial aspects of cities' sustainability. Many tools and assessment systems have been developed to improve cities' energy efficiency and environmental footprint. However, most of these tools are based on the building scale. Most urban stakeholders are now convinced that a building scale approach is not sufficient: the scale of analysis should evolve from the building to the neighbourhood, district and city scales. An innovative system of indicators is presented that answers the need for multi-scale and cross-scale indicators and encompasses the intrinsic complexity of the city. Based on a morphologic approach, new mathematical formulas are used to generate urban sustainability indicators. These indicators can assist with the comparison of urban projects by using a structural point of view to assess the energy efficiency, social and environmental consequences of different urban forms. A comprehensive table displays 60 indicators and methods to quantify them. Some of these indicators have been quantified for real cities and are presented. Les acteurs du cadre urbain ont besoin de solides outils quantitatifs afin de mettre en oeuvre de nouvelles pistes pour parvenir à la durabilité urbaine. La forme urbaine, la répartition spatiale des activités et l'organisation urbaine sont des aspects déterminants de la durabilité des villes. De nombreux outils et systèmes d'évaluation ont été mis au point pour améliorer l'efficacité énergétique des villes et l'empreinte environnementale. Cependant, la plupart de ces outils reposent sur une approche à l'échelle du bâtiment. La plupart des acteurs du cadre urbain sont maintenant convaincus qu'une approche à l'échelle du bâtiment n'est pas suffisante : l'échelle d'analyse devrait évoluer de l'échelle du bâtiment à l'échelle du quartier, de l'arrondissement et de la ville. Il est présenté un système innovant d'indicateurs qui répond aux besoins d'indicateurs multi-échelles et trans-échelles et qui englobe la complexité intrinsèque de la ville. En se basant sur une approche morphologique, de nouvelles formules mathématiques sont utilisées pour générer des indicateurs de durabilité urbaine. Ces indicateurs peuvent aider à comparer les projets de construction urbains en utilisant un point de vue structurel pour évaluer l'efficacité énergétique, les conséquences sociales et environnementales des différentes formes urbaines. Un tableau exhaustif affiche 60 indicateurs et les méthodes pour les quantifier. Certains de ces indicateurs ont été quantifiés pour des villes réelles et sont présentés. efficacité du cadre bâti, évaluation environnementale, indicateurs spatiaux, villes durables, efficacité urbaine, résilience urbaine, outils urbains Keywords: built environment efficiencyenvironmental assessmentspatial indicatorssustainable citiesurban efficiencyurban resilienceurban tools

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are frequent indoor air pollutants. Indoor materials can act as buffers for VOCs, reducing peak concentrations but prolonging the presence of compounds in the air. The purpose of this paper is to present quantitative experimental results on diffusion and sorption of VOCs in indoor materials and to discuss the impact of these processes on indoor air quality. A two-flow system was chosen for the present study because this method allows mass flow across materials to be directly observed. For some materials, effective diffusion coefficients were only 1 order of magnitude below what is found in air. Two types of concrete showed a very high sorption capacity for ethyl acetate. Steady-state calculations were performed within a model room. By considering various wall materials, the influences of diffusion and of sorption on the air quality of the room are discussed. Regarding the case of gypsum board walls, it may be concluded that diffusion through the material can contribute to reducing the room air concentration, especially at low ventilation rates. The results indicate that sorption and diffusion processes can affect the ventilation requirements in such rooms.

The evolution of the Parisian urban climate under a changing climate is analyzed from long-term offline numerical integrations including a specific urban parameterization. This system is forced by meteorological conditions based on present-climate reanalyses (1970–2007), and climate projections (2071–2099) provided by global climate model simulations following two emission scenarios (A1B and A2). This study aims at quantifying the impact of climate change on air temperature within the city and in the surroundings. A systematic increase of 2-meter air temperature is found. In average according to the two scenarios, it reaches + 2.0/2.4°C in winter and + 3.5/5.0°C in summer for the minimum and maximum daily temperatures, respectively. During summer, the warming trend is more pronounced in the surrounding countryside than in Paris and suburbs due to the soil dryness. As a result, a substantial decrease of the strong urban heat islands is noted at nighttime, and numerous events with negative urban heat islands appear at daytime. Finally, a 30% decrease of the heating degree days is quantified in winter between present and future climates. Inversely, the summertime cooling degree days significantly increase in future climate whereas they are negligible in present climate. However, in terms of accumulated degree days, the increase of the demand in cooling remains smaller than the decrease of the demand in heating.