Department of Scientific and Industrial Research

Abstract The paper reviews the physical oceanography of the seas around New Zealand as known up to 1982 and includes: deep‐ocean water characteristics and mean flow; fronts, tides, and coastal and continental shelf oceanography; and waves and tsunamis.

Phosphate retention from KH 2 PO 4 solution at pH 4.6 was measured in some New Zealand soil profiles, arranged in sequences of increasing weathering and leaching, from sedimentary and volcanic parent materials. P retention from KH 2 PO 4 solution correlated closely with Pretention measured by adding solid Ca(H 2 PO 4 ) 2 H 2 O to moist soil and subsequently measuring water‐soluble P. P retention by topsoils correlated closely with organic carbon, total nitrogen, loss on ignition, organic phosphorus, Tamm Al and Fe, and neutral citrate‐dithionite Fe. Subsoil P retention correlated closely with Tamm Al and Fe and citrate‐dithionite Fe. Soil organic matter was not considered to be directly concerned in Pretention; the close correlation with P retention followed from a close correlation between soil organic matter and Tamm Al and Fe. On each parent material, Tamm Al, Fe, and P retention increased with degree of weathering to a maximum in moderately weathered soils of silt texture and then decreased in strongly weathered soils of clay texture. With increasing degree of leaching within the profile, P retention and Tamm Al and Fe decreased in topsoils and increased in subsoils. P retention per unit of Tamm Alar Fe was similar in topsoils and subsoils. Allophane in soils lowered the P retention per unit of Tamm Alar Fe. Soils with allophane contained appreciable Tamm Si (> 5 mM Si). Possibly the Tamm Si combined with Tamm Al and Fe, thereby preventing P retention by the Al and Fe.

Benthic macroinvertebrates were sampled (seven Surber samples per site) in 88 rivers throughout New Zealand in “runs” (velocity 0.4–0.8 m s −1 , depth = 0.3–0.6 m), under autumn baseflow conditions (Q < median). Medians and 10–90 percentiles for the following community level characteristics were: taxa richness, 14 and 7–20(0.7 m −2 ); Shannon Diversity ( H ’), 1.33and 0.80–1.90; total density, 1900 and 230–6700 m −2 ; and total biomass, 0.608 and 0.112–2.932 g AFDW m −2 . Invertebrate abundance and taxonomic richness were lowest in rivers with beds of silt or sand, or cobbles overlain with sand deposits. Comparisons of environmental factors between sites grouped by TWINSPAN indicated that the degree of catchment development to improved pasture, water temperature, and level of enrichment (indicated by increased nutrients and periphyton biomass) are important factors affecting invertebrate community structure in New Zealand rivers. Mayflies, stoneflies, and predatory caddisflies were associated with cooler, less enriched, steeper, and more elevated sites than snails, crustaceans, chironomids, and worms. Stonefly biomass was minimal at sites having mean annual temperatures >13°C. The following community characteristics emerged as useful indicators of the level of water enrichment: the Macroinvertebrate Community Index (MCI) and its quantitative analog (QMCI); the presence of some species (e.g., Zelandoperla decorata and Bereoptera roria ), and the densities of some widely distributed taxa (e.g., Deleatidium spp. and Psilochorema spp.); percentage predator biomass; and the number of ephemeropteran, plecopteran, and trichopteran taxa (EPT). Sites did not separate out clearly into ecoregions, although rivers with “clean‐water” faunas were more predominant in the South Island than in the North Island. This is thought to reflect the greater degree of development of the North Island catchments.

Soils having cohesion and internal friction are often considered to be perfectly plastic solids. A consistent approach has been proposed on the basis of the mathematical theory of perfect plasticity, and several interesting results were obtained. However, such an idealized treatment will often result in a marked difference between prediction and experimental fact. In particular, the strong dependence of the volume change under shearing action on the prior history of the soil cannot be properly taken into account. It is suggested herein that soil be treated as a work-hardening material which may reach the perfectly plastic state. A remarkable qualitative agreement is then obtained with the known behavior of soils in triaxial tests; additional study along similar lines appears most promising.

BACKGROUND: Robust reference values for fecal egg count reduction (FECR) rates of the most widely used anthelmintic drugs in preventive chemotherapy (PC) programs for controlling soil-transmitted helminths (STHs; Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and hookworm) are still lacking. However, they are urgently needed to ensure detection of reduced efficacies that are predicted to occur due to growing drug pressure. Here, using a standardized methodology, we assessed the FECR rate of a single oral dose of mebendazole (MEB; 500 mg) against STHs in six trials in school children in different locations around the world. Our results are compared with those previously obtained for similarly conducted trials of a single oral dose of albendazole (ALB; 400 mg). METHODOLOGY: The efficacy of MEB, as assessed by FECR, was determined in six trials involving 5,830 school children in Brazil, Cambodia, Cameroon, Ethiopia, United Republic of Tanzania, and Vietnam. The efficacy of MEB was compared to that of ALB as previously assessed in 8,841 school children in India and all the above-mentioned study sites, using identical methodologies. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The estimated FECR rate [95% confidence interval] of MEB was highest for A. lumbricoides (97.6% [95.8; 99.5]), followed by hookworm (79.6% [71.0; 88.3]). For T. trichiura, the estimated FECR rate was 63.1% [51.6; 74.6]. Compared to MEB, ALB was significantly more efficacious against hookworm (96.2% [91.1; 100], p<0.001) and only marginally, although significantly, better against A. lumbricoides infections (99.9% [99.0; 100], p = 0.012), but equally efficacious for T. trichiura infections (64.5% [44.4; 84.7], p = 0.906). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: A minimum FECR rate of 95% for A. lumbricoides, 70% for hookworm, and 50% for T. trichiura is expected in MEB-dependent PC programs. Lower FECR results may indicate the development of potential drug resistance.

"Nutritional ecology of insects, mites, spiders, and related invertebrates." New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 15(3), p. 449

Summary The present distribution and ecology of New Zealand plants is discussed from a historical viewpoint.It is suggested that during the Miocene a southern extension of the New Zealand archipelago supported a cool temperste flora, which gave rise to the present mountain flora after the onset of orogeny and climatic cooling in the Pliocene.As there was scarcely any simultaneous development of a distinctive flora adapted to the dry conditions which prevail to the east of the mountain axis, Cockayne§ opinion that extremely arid Pleistocene climates evoked certain characteristic life forms—notably the divaricating juvenile form of some trees—is considered to be substantially incorrect. That these life forms are adapted to still–existing conditions seems more probable. The broader features of present distribution are explllined in terms of Pleistocene glaciation and subsequent climatic amelioration.From the evidence of endemism and discontinuous distribution, it is concluded that Otago and Southland,Nelson and Marlborough, Auckland,the subantarctic regions and the Chatham Islands are areas where much of the present flora survived during the glaciation,whereas the middle portion of the South Island and the south of the North Island were characterised by extinction.Adjustment of the vegetation to post Pleistocene conditions is still incomplete, and complicated by the effect of continuing climatic fluctuations.

New Zealand is divided into 29 approximately equal‐sized arbitrary areas, and their boundaries are defined and mapped. A 2‐letter code is given for each area. The system is designed primarily for use on specimen labels of the New Zealand National Arthropod Collection, and introduces a more reliable basis for the sorting and documentation of specimens.

Summary The following Foraminifera are of stratigraphic importance in New Zealand and especially in the Waipara district: Pseudoclavulina anglica Cushman (Teurian); Sigmoilopsis neocelata n.sp. (Duntroonian? Waitakian to Altonian); S. compressa n.sp, (Awamoan and Altonian); Buliminella waiparaensis n.sp. (Haumurian and Teurian); Bolivina fyfei n.sp, (Kapitean to Nukumaruan); Loxostomum pakaurangiensis n.sp. (Awarnoan to Waiauan): Notorotalia wilsoni n.sp. (Altonian to Waiauan); Notorotalia aranea n.sp. (Otaian? Hutchinsonian and Awamoan); Globigerina pseudoiota Hornibrook (Waipawan and Mangaorapan); G. gravelli Bronniman (Waipawan): G. soldadoensis Bronniman (Waipawan); Globorotalia zealandica n.sp. (Awamoan and Altonian); Cibicides thiaracuta n sp. (Altonian to Tongaporutuan).

Data from runs in 88 rivers throughout New Zealand, and a comparison between areas of contrasting substrate size in the Mohaka River, were used to investigate the influences of physical factors on benthic macroinvertebrates. Substrate size preferences were more clearly demonstrated by the comparison of different substrates in the Mohaka River than between runs in the 88 rivers. Taxonomic richness and densities of most collector‐browsers were highest on small cobble‐boulder substrates. However, filterers and a facultative shredder showed strong preferences for large cobbles and boulders and an undescribed orthoclad showed a strong preference for sand. Among the 80 stony‐bedded rivers, those exposed to maximum flows of &lt; 5×, 5–10×, and 10–20× their median flow during 6 weeks before sampling had similar taxonomic richness, densities, and biomass. In contrast, rivers that had experienced maximum flows of &gt; 20× their median flows had markedly lower median taxonomic richness, density, and biomass than less‐flooded rivers. Among the 51 stony, “non‐flooded” sites, those with 1–30% of their catchments developed to improved pasture had similar community composition to, but higher total biomass than those with &lt; 1% development. However, sites with &gt; 30% catchment development (median = 70%) differed significantly ( P &lt; 0.1) from those with less developed catchments: the former had lower diversity, taxonomic richness, numbers of ephemeropteran, plecopteran, and trichopteran species (EPT), and had lower biomass of species that are sensitive to changes in water quality related to eutrophication; they had higher biomass of species that are associated with an abundance of periphyton. Trout biomass was also c. 3‐fold lower than in the rivers with lesser‐developed (1–30%) catchments.

Pectic polysaccharides solubilized in vivo during ripening, were isolated using phenol, acetic acid, and water (PAW) from the outer pericarp of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa [A. Chev.] C.F. Liang and A.R. Ferguson var deliciosa ;Hayward') before and after postharvest ethylene treatment. Insoluble polysaccharides of the cell wall materials (CWMs) were solubilized in vitro by chemical extraction with 0.05 molar cyclohexane-trans-1,2-diamine tetraacetate (CDTA), 0.05 molar Na(2)CO(3), 6 molar guanidinium thiocyanate, and 4 molar KOH. The Na(2)CO(3)-soluble fraction decreased by 26%, and the CDTA-soluble fraction increased by 54% 1 day after ethylene treatment. Concomitantly, an increase in the pectic polymer content of the PAW-soluble fraction occurred without loss of galactose from the cell wall. The molecular weight of the PAW-soluble pectic fraction 1 day after ethylene treatment was similar to that of the Na(2)CO(3)-soluble fraction before ethylene treatment. Four days after ethylene treatment, 60% of cell wall polyuronide was solubilized, and 50% of the galactose was lost from the CWM, but the degree of galactosylation and molecular weight of pectic polymers remaining in the CWMs did not decrease. The exception was the CDTA-soluble fraction which showed an apparent decrease in molecular weight during ripening. Concurrently, the PAW-soluble pectic fraction showed a 20-fold reduction in molecular weight. The results suggest that considerable solubilization of the pectic polymers occurred during ripening without changes to their primary structure or degree of polymerization. Following solubilization, the polymers then became susceptible to depolymerization and degalactosidation. Pectolytic enzymes such as endopolygalacturonase and beta-galactosidase were therefore implicated in the degradation of solubilized cell wall pectic polymers but not the initial solubilization of the bulk of the pectic polymers in vivo.

SUMMARY A sequential alkali extraction procedure followed by ultrafiltration and quantitative 31 P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to examine organic phosphorus in a Brown Chernozem, and an adjacent Gleysol developed under native prairie vegetation, and a Grey Luvisol formed under aspen forest in Saskatchewan, Canada. Differences in the nature of organic P in the native soils were related to moisture status and vegetation. In the grassland soils, a greater proportion of orthophosphate diester P was found in the bottom‐slope Gleysol. This difference was partly attributed to less favourable conditions for mineralization in the bottom slope soil compared with the mid‐slope Brown Chernozem. Teichoic acid P occurred only in the native Grey Luvisol (NMR δ p.p.m. 0.36‐0.95) under boreal forest and not under native grassland. At all three sites, soils under long‐term cultivation were also examined and while orthophosphate monoester P (83.4‐94.6% total Po), orthophosphate diester P (3.9–8.7% total Po) and teichoic acid P (12.7% total Po in forested Grey Luvisol) were detected in native soils, only orthophosphate monoester P was found in the corresponding soils that had been cultivated for 70–80 years. These findings suggest that orthophosphate diester P and teichoic acid P are more readily mineralized in the soil environment than orthophosphate monoester P forms.

Microhabitat preferences of 12 benthic invertebrate taxa were investigated in four New Zealand rivers. Most taxa showed significant habitat preferences. Generally, taxa were more abundant in water less than 0.75 m deep and in gravel or coarser substrates, and no taxa showed a clear preference for fine substrate (sand and fine gravel) or deep water. Coloburiscus humeralis, Zelandoperla spp., and Aoteapsyche spp. preferred coarse substrate and water velocities of more than 0.75 m s −1 , whereas Nesa‐meletus spp. and Pycnocentrodes spp. were associated with similar substrate but lower water velocities (0.2–0.8 m s −1 ). Naididae preferred low (&lt; 0.3 m s −1 ) water velocities, Potamopyrgus antipodarum and Chironomidae low to moderate velocities (0.0–0.75 m s −1 ), and all three were associated with a broad range of substrates. Deleatidium spp., Olingaferedayi , Hydrobiosidae, and Aphrophila neozelandica were found in a wide range of habitats. Velocity, depth, and substrate suitability curves developed for Deleatidium in each of the four rivers also demonstrated the broad habitat tolerances of this genus. Generalised suitability curves formed by enveloping, rather than averaging, curves from each of the rivers performed favourably when compared to models based on suitability curves developed for each river individually. Correlations between Deleatidium abundance and the joint suitability function, calculated from the generalised velocity, depth, and substrate curves, were significant but poor (r = 0.44–0.69) in each of the four rivers. The intercepts of the linear relationships between Deleatidium abundance and the joint preference factor were not significantly different from zero for three of the four rivers, suggesting that the preference functions are applicable to in‐stream flow assessments.

Summary This paper includes information relevant to the ecology of Weinmannia racemosa , a distribution map based on its presence or absence in grid squares, a discussion of the taxonomic relationship to W. silvicola , and bibliographic references to other information.

Abstract Analysis of faeces for titanium by the X‐ray fluorescence technique is shown to be a rapid and reliable method of determining soil content of faeces. Ingestion of soil by dairy cows has been followed monthly on a herd basis over the 1967–8 season on a limited number of town supply herds in the Kaitoke and Wairarapa districts, and on Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Dairy Units at Massey University. Mean soil ingestion per cow on the private farms ranges from about 400 to 700 lb per year. Soil ingestion at Massey ranges from about 400 lb per year on the lighter‐stocked No. 1 Unit (town milk supply) to over 1,000 lb of soil per cow per year on the heavily‐stocked No. 3 Unit. Animals wintered on paddocks on No. 3 Unit ingest more soil than do the platform‐wintered herd. Ingestion of soil on an individual animal basis at No. 5 Dairy Farm at Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre was followed weekly from individual faeces samples collected over the 1965–6 season. Soil ingestions range from approximately 200 to 800 lb per cow per year, and can differ by a factor of two for different animals in the same herd. Evidence is presented to demonstrate that some twins may show inherited tendencies to either low or high soil ingestions. Soil content of faeces may provide some measure of the grazing behaviour of an animal. While yearly intakes of soil can reach approximately 1,0001b, this is still less than about 2% of the weight of fresh pasture consumed. The possible importance of ingested soil as a source of DDT and microelements for animals is discussed.

Summary Alpine timberline represents the highest altitude at which shoots of woody plants can grow and ripen under the air temperatures which prevail at the height of tree canopies. At higher altitudes, woody plants can occur as shrubs and krummholz, by benefiting from warmer day‐time temperatures close to the ground. Inverted timberlines against valley floors are related to nocturnal temperature inversions and repeated daily freeze‐thaw cycles. Evidence favouring these interpretations comes from experiments in the Craigieburn Range, New Zealand, in which seedlings of the local timberline species, Nothofagus solandri , and various overseas timberline species were grown in a series of gardens above and below the natural timberline. Although seedlings show decreasing growth with increasing altitude, tree limit is better explained in terms of the ripening of shoots so that they can withstand unfavourable winter conditions, than by the hypothesis relating it to the ability to achieve a positive CO 2 balance. Physiognomic differences among timberlines are related to other physiological characteristics such as light requirements, growth rates, and mycorrhizal associations, and to winter severity, which affects the floristic diversity and incidence of deciduousness. Above tree limit, predominance of large herbs and medium‐sized shrubs in the lower part of the alpine belt in New Guinea and New Zealand reflects milder conditions than prevail in the Northern Hemisphere. Among woody plants, shrubby genera have shown the most speciation above timberline, but some tree species have evolved dwarf relatives. Nothofagus solandri seedlings grown on a valley floor below an inverted timberline fail to survive winter unless shaded, but North American conifers are fully winter hardy at the same site. In New Guinea, depressions supporting tussock grassland dotted with Cyathea tree ferns are considered to be basically related to frost.

Abstract Ash beds of rhyolitic composition older than the Rerewhakaaitu Ash are described (in order of increasing age) for the central North Island of New Zealand. For convenience the ash beds down to the Rerewhakaaitu Ash (c. 14,700 yr B.P.) are included in the Holocene and the older ash beds (Okareka, Te Rere, Oruanui, Mangaonjf and Rotoehu) are referred to the late Pleistocene, the age of Rotoehu Ash being greater than c. 41,000 yr B.P. Okareka Ash and Te Rere Ash, with sources near Mt Tarawera, lack distinctive bedding and are of limited extent. Oruanui Formation, with a source near Taupo, has two distinctive members: Oruanui Breccia; and Oruanui Ash (distributed over 50,000 sq miles). Mangaone Lapilli, erupted from three main sources in the Okataina Volcanic Centre, comprises five major pumice lapilli and block beds. Rotoehu Ash, erupted from near Lake Rotoma, is a distinctive shower‐bedded deposit recognisable over 6,000 sq miles. Rotoehu Ash rests without time interval on Rotoiti Breccia and is here considered a member of that formation. The record within the ash column has particular value where ash beds are radiocarbon dated: for example, the Oruanui Formation, erupted c. 20,000 yr B.P., suffered extensive erosion and so provided a local source in the central North Island for wind‐transported Mokai Sand and loess; the ash beds also contributed to aggradation gravels and sands of the Hinuera Formation in the Waikato Valley and lowlands. Correlation of persistent but well‐weathered formations with soils is attempted for the Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, and Hawke's Bay districts. Oruanui Ash is provisionally correlated with Aokautere Ash, which was previously used as a marker bed in loess deposits of the Manawatu district, and has proved a useful tool in pedological interpretation.

Existing classifications of Tenebrionidae are reviewed briefly. The inclusion of the families Alleculidae, Lagriidae, and Nilionidae in Tenebrionidae is confirmed. The splitting off from this complex of a family, Tentyriidae, by Doyen is discussed and rejected. Various taxa which had been included in Tenebrionidae are excluded, amongst which Syrphetodes, Brouniphylax, Exohadrus, Arthopus, Cotulades, Docalis , and Latometus ( =Elascus ) have not previously been formally excluded. A new family, Archeocrypticidae, is established and defined briefly for Archeocrypticus, Sivacrypticus , and Enneboeus . Data from matrices based on adult and larval characters comparing Tenebrionidae with most other families of Tenebrionoidea (=Heteromera) are presented for derived characters in common, and for overall similarity. The families most closely related to Tenebrionidae according to these data are Zopheridae, Chalcodryidae, Merycidae, Archeocrypticidae, Synchroidae, Colydiidae, and Monommatidae; none is very close to Tenebrionidae, which has had a long independent history. Characters of the subfamilies recognised are tabulated, and interpreted in a phylo‐genetic dendrogram. Phylogeny is discussed in relation to adaptive changes in the biology of the various subfamilies, which are Zolodininae new subfamily, Pimeliinae new sense (including Tentyriinae), Toxicinae new sense, Phrenapatinae new sense (including Archeoglenini new tribe), Diaperinae new sense, Gnathidiinae, Tenebrioninae new sense, Alleculinae, Nilioninae, Lagriinae new sense, Cossyphinae, and Cossyphodinae new status. Biology, economic importance, copulation, orientation of the aedeagus, and distribution are discussed briefly. Definitions of the family and subfamilies and a key to subfamilies are given, and keys to tribes are included for the smaller subfamilies. The previously unknown larvae of the genera Zolodinus, Menimus, Archeoglenes, Lepispilus , and Nyctoporis are described in detail. Pupae of Zolodinus and Nyctoporis are described. Keys to larvae include many other genera which were hitherto unknown or poorly known.

Abstract Heavy metal analysis of the &lt; 20 μm fraction of marine sediments from Wellington Harbour and Waiwhetu Stream have shown that the Waiwhetu Stream is easily the most polluted area in the Wellington Harbour system with Pb and Zn in the extremely polluted category and Cu, Cd, and Hg in the moderately to strongly polluted category. These elements have different distributions in the stream sediments reflecting their different sources from adjacent factories. In Wellington Harbour itself, the central basin of the harbour suffers from minimal pollution. Pb, and to a lesser extent Zn and Cu, are the main pollutants and local enrichment of these elements is noted in Lambton Harbour basin, off Pencarrow and Moa Point outfalls, in Evans Bay, and off Petone and Kaiwharawhara. The geochemical data do not enable us to identify the source of the pollutants unambiguously. A summary of the history of waste discharges into the harbour suggests that heavy metal pollution may have been higher in the past.

Abstract The efficient breeding and selection of corn ( Zea mays L.) genotypes for different climatic regions requires a quantitative understanding of the plant's developmental responses to environmental factors such as temperature and photoperiod. This information is also essential if reliable and meaningful crop simulation models are to be developed. Plants of two corn hybrids, XL45 and W346 were grown in controlled environments under 18 day/night temperature combinations ranging from 16/6 to 38/33°C (12‐h photoperiod) and under three photoperiods (12,14, and 16 h) at two selected temperatures (constant 18 and 28°C). Data defining the temperature response curves, including the minimum and optimum temperature limits, for germination and emergence and for the development periods from sowing to tassel initiation and sowing to anthesis were obtained. A minimum temperature of 9°C was predicted for germination and emergence, and a requirement of 62.5 degree‐days was determined for this growth stage. The optimum temperature was approximately 30°C. Minimum temperatures of 8 and 7°C were determined for tassel initiation and anthesis, respectively, and the optimum temperature for both was 28°C above which the development rates declined. These temperature limits compared with minima and maxima of 10 and 30°C, respectively, used in most current heat‐sum methods. Between the limits of 7 and 28°C, the number of degree‐days required to reach tassel initiation and anthesis were, respectively, 208 and 736 for hybrid W346, and 245 and 816 for XL45. Tassel initiation occurred at approximately one‐third of the time between sowing and anthesis when calculated either on the basis of heat‐sums (degree‐days) or from calendar‐days under the steady‐state temperature conditions used. An increase in photoperiod lengthened both the time between sowing and tassel initiation and that between tassel initiation and anthesis in a similar, almost equal, manner for both cultivars. Sensitivity to the photoperiod response was not altered by temperature.