Identités et Différenciation de l'Environnement des Espaces et des Sociétés

New excavations in ravines at Ounjougou in Mali have brought to light a lithic and ceramic assemblage that dates from before 9400 cal BC. The authors show that this first use of pottery coincides with a warm wet period in the Sahara. As in East Asia, where very early ceramics are also known, the pottery and small bifacial arrowheads were the components of a new subsistence strategy exploiting an ecology associated with abundant wild grasses. In Africa, however, the seeds were probably boiled (then as now) rather than made into bread.

Urban green space (UGS) has many environmental and social benefits. UGS provision and access are increasingly considered in urban policies and must rely on data and indicators that can capture variations in the distribution of UGS within cities. There is no consensus about how UGS, and their provision and access, must be defined from different land use data types. Here we identify four spatial dimensions of UGS and critically examine how different data sources affect these dimensions and our understanding of their variation within a city region (Brussels). We compare UGS indicators measured from an imagery source (NDVI from Landsat), an official cadastre-based map, and the voluntary geographical information provided by OpenStreetMap (OSM). We compare aggregate values of provision and access to UGS as well as their spatial distribution along a centrality gradient and at neighbourhood scale. We find that there are strong differences in the value of indicators when using the different datasets, especially due to their ability to capture private and public green space. However we find that the interpretation of intra-urban spatial variations is not affected by changes in data source. Centrality in particular is a strong determinant of the relative values of UGS availability, fragmentation and accessibility, irrespective of datasets.

The expansion in the geographical distribution of vector-borne diseases is a much emphasized consequence of climate change, as are the consequences of urbanization for diseases that are already endemic, which may be even more important for public health. In this paper, we focus on dengue, the most widespread urban vector-borne disease. Largely urban with a tropical/subtropical distribution and vectored by a domesticated mosquito, Aedes aegypti, dengue poses a serious public health threat. Temperature plays a determinant role in dengue epidemic potential, affecting crucial parts of the mosquito and viral life cycles. The urban predilection of the mosquito species will further exacerbate the impact of global temperature change because of the urban heat island effect. Even within a city, temperatures can vary by 10 °C according to urban land use, and diurnal temperature range (DTR) can be even greater. DTR has been shown to contribute significantly to dengue epidemic potential. Unraveling the importance of within-city temperature is as important for dengue as for the negative health consequences of high temperatures that have thus far been emphasized, for example, pollution and heat stroke. Urban and landscape planning designed to mitigate the non-infectious negative effects of temperature should additionally focus on dengue, which is currently spreading worldwide with no signs of respite.

BACKGROUND: The significant malaria burden in Africa has often eclipsed other febrile illnesses. Burkina Faso's first dengue epidemic occurred in 1925 and the most recent in 2013. Yet there is still very little known about dengue prevalence, its vector proliferation, and its poverty and equity impacts. METHODS: An exploratory cross-sectional survey was performed from December 2013 to January 2014. Six primary healthcare centers in Ouagadougou were selected based on previously reported presence of Flavivirus. All patients consulting with fever or having had fever within the previous week and with a negative rapid diagnostic test (RDT) for malaria were invited to participate. Sociodemographic data, healthcare use and expenses, mobility, health-related status, and vector control practices were captured using a questionnaire. Blood samples of every eligible subject were obtained through finger pricks during the survey for dengue RDT using SD BIOLINE Dengue Duo (NS1Ag and IgG/IgM)® and to obtain blood spots for reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. In a sample of randomly selected yards and those of patients, potential Aedes breeding sites were found and described. Larvae were collected and brought to the laboratory to monitor the emergence of adults and identify the species. RESULTS: Of the 379 subjects, 8.7 % (33/379) had positive RDTs for dengue. Following the 2009 WHO classification, 38.3 % (145/379) had presumptive, probable, or confirmed dengue, based on either clinical symptoms or laboratory testing. Of 60 samples tested by RT-PCR (33 from the positive tests and 27 from the subsample of negatives), 15 were positive. The serotypes observed were DENV2, DENV3, and DENV4. Odds of dengue infection in 15-to-20-year-olds and persons over 50 years were 4.0 (CI 95 %: 1.0-15.6) and 7.7 (CI 95 %: 1.6-37.1) times higher, respectively, than in children under five. Average total spending for a dengue episode was 13 771 FCFA [1 300-67 300 FCFA] (1$US = 478 FCFA). On average, 2.6 breeding sites were found per yard. Potential Aedes breeding sites were found near 71.4 % (21/28) of patients, but no adult Aedes were found. The most frequently identified potential breeding sites were water storage containers (45.2 %). Most specimens collected in yards were Culex (97.9 %). CONCLUSIONS: The scientific community, public health authorities, and health workers should consider dengue as a possible cause of febrile illness in Burkina Faso.

The IPCC climate models predict, for the Maghreb countries, lower rainfall and increased aridity. Current observations in the three countries of central Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) are not consistent with these predictions. To demonstrate this new trend, a detailed regional analysis of rainfall evolution is conducted. This investigation is based on the calculation of the reduced centered index and the chronological graphical method of processing information (MGCTI) of “Bertin matrix” type. The results show extreme variability of this parameter and the severe past drought (more intense for Morocco, in which the drastic conditions from the seventies are observed). The results also show the beginning of a gradual return to wetter conditions since the early 2000s in Algeria and Tunisia and from 2008 for Morocco (this trend is confirmed by recent agricultural production data in 2011/2012 and 2012/2013).

Abstract Sedimentological and geomorphological studies of terraces around Lake Van (1647 m) provided a preliminary framework for lake‐level variations. The elevations of terraces and past lake level were measured with a differential global positioning system. A chronology is developed using 234 U/ 230 Th dating of travertines, 39 Ar/ 40 Ar dating of pyroclastites and 14 C dating of organic matter. Facies and stratigraphic correlations identify four transgressions (C1′, C1″, C2′ and C2″), each followed by a regression which ended with low lake levels that caused river incision and terrace formation. Evidence of the oldest transgression (C1′) is found in the uppermost reaches of valleys up to 1755 m, an altitude higher than the present lake threshold (1736 m). This C1′ transgression may be related to pyroclastic flows which dammed an outlet located in the western part of the lake basin and which is dated to before 105 ka. After 100 ka, a second transgression (C1″) reached 1730/1735 m, possibly related to a younger ignimbrite flow, in association with high water inflow (warm and/or wetter conditions). The two younger transgressions reached 1700–1705 m. The first one (C2′) is dated to 26–24.5 cal. ka BP and the second one (C2″) to 21–20 cal. ka BP. Available data suggest that the long‐term lake‐level changes responded mainly to climate oscillations. Additional events such as river captures caused by volcanic falls filling valleys, tectonism, erosion and karstic diversion may have impacted these long‐term lake‐level changes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

La maladie d’Alzheimer – que l’on classait jusque récemment sous le vocable de « démence sénile » voire de « gâtisme » ou de « radotage » – est aujourd’hui largement sortie du domaine médical pour devenir à la fois un problème de santé publique et un « problème public », et par là même un véritable enjeu social et politique. À ce titre, elle doit être appréhendée comme un fait social à part entière, à la croisée de l’anthropologie, des sciences politiques et de plusieurs champs de spécialisation de la sociologie. Cet ouvrage se propose d’étudier l’ensemble des processus à l’œuvre dans l’émergence d’une maladie touchant le fondement de la personne humaine – la mémoire – et les actions menées par les différents acteurs afin qu’elle soit reconnue et prise en compte dans notre société. La « sortie de l’oubli » de la maladie d’Alzheimer et des maladies apparentées et la possibilité de la prise de parole des personnes malades elles-mêmes dans l’espace public sont la résultante de plusieurs dynamiques : scientifique et médicale, associative, médiatique et politico-administrative. L’analyse pose en filigrane la question d’évolutions sociales plus larges, comme la médicalisation des phénomènes sociaux, la progression des maladies chroniques et l’alzheimérisation de la grande vieillesse : autant d’éléments d’arrière-plan qui ont contribué à modeler les représentations et le vécu des personnes atteintes de la maladie d’Alzheimer.

Land cover changes (LCC) affect the water balance (WB), changing surface runoff (SurfQ), evapotranspiration (ET), groundwater (GW) regimes, and streamflow (Q). The Tapajós Basin (southeastern Amazon) has experienced LCC over the last 40 years, with increasing LCC rates projected for the near future. Several studies have addressed the effects of climate changes on the region’s hydrology, but few have explored the effects of LCC on its hydrological regime. In this study, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was applied to model the LCC effects on the hydrology of the Upper Crepori River Basin (medium Tapajós Basin), using historical and projected LCC based on conservation policies (GOV_2050) and on the “Business as Usual” trend (BAU_2050). LCC that occurred from 1973 to 2012, increased Q by 2.5%, without noticeably altering the average annual WB. The future GOV_2050 and BAU_2050 scenarios increased SurfQ by 238.87% and 300.90%, and Q by 2.53% and 2.97%, respectively, and reduced GW by 4.00% and 5.21%, and ET by 2.07% and 2.43%, respectively. Results suggest that the increase in deforestation will intensify floods and low-flow events, and that the conservation policies considered in the GOV_2050 scenario may still compromise the region’s hydrology at a comparable level to that of the BAU_2050.

This study concerns the West African Sahel. The Sahelian climate is characterized by a long dry season and a rainy season which starts in June and ends in September–October. This latter season is associated with the process of oceanic moisture transfer to the mainland (the West African Monsoon). This movement is governed by an overall moving of the meteorological equator and its low-pressure corridor (Intertropical Convergence Zone, ITCZ) towards the north, under the effect of the attraction of the Saharan thermal depressions and a greater vigor of the anticyclonic nuclei. This study was conducted on 27 Sahelian climatic stations in three countries (Burkina Faso, Mauritania, and Senegal). The method used to determine the modes of this variability and the trends of rainfall is the chronological graphic method of information processing (MGCTI) of the “Bertin Matrix” and continuous wavelets transform (CWT). Results show a rain resumption observed in the recent years over the Sahelian region and a convincing link with the surface temperature of the Atlantic Ocean.

Des changements climatiques importants affectent une grande partie de notre planète. Les différents modèles prévoient ainsi une hausse probable des précipitations et des températures dans plusieurs régions du monde. Le présent travail analyse l'évolution des températures et des pluies enregistrées sur le littoral algérien pendant plus de quarante années. Les évolutions de ces deux paramètres témoignent des bouleversements climatiques subis ces dernières années par l'Afrique du Nord et le Grand Maghreb.

Central vestibular neurons process head movement-related sensory signals over a wide dynamic range. In the isolated frog whole brain, second-order vestibular neurons were identified by monosynaptic responses after electrical stimulation of individual semicircular canal nerve branches. Neurons were classified as tonic or phasic vestibular neurons based on their different discharge patterns in response to positive current steps. With increasing frequency of sinusoidally modulated current injections, up to 100 Hz, there was a concomitant decrease in the impedance of tonic vestibular neurons. Subthreshold responses as well as spike discharge showed classical low-pass filter-like characteristics with corner frequencies ranging from 5 to 20 Hz. In contrast, the impedance of phasic vestibular neurons was relatively constant over a wider range of frequencies or showed a resonance at approximately 40 Hz. Above spike threshold, single spikes of phasic neurons were synchronized with the sinusoidal stimulation between approximately 20 and 50 Hz, thus showing characteristic bandpass filter-like properties. Both the subthreshold resonance and bandpass filter-like discharge pattern depend on the activation of an I(D) potassium conductance. External current or synaptic stimulation that produced impedance increases (i.e., depolarization in tonic or hyperpolarization in phasic neurons) had opposite and complementary effects on the responses of the two types of neurons. Thus, membrane depolarization by current steps or repetitive synaptic excitation amplified synaptic inputs in tonic vestibular neurons and reduced them in phasic neurons. These differential, opposite membrane response properties render the two neuronal types particularly suitable for either integration (tonic neurons) or signal detection (phasic neurons), respectively, and dampens variations of the resting membrane potential in the latter.

Cette étude porte sur le Sahel ouest-africain, qui fait la transition entre la zone sahélo-soudanienne assez arrosée et le désert saharien. Ce territoire s'étend sur 12 pays formant une bande longitudinale comprise entre 12 et 20° de latitude Nord. En Afrique de l'Ouest, six pays (Sénégal, Mauritanie, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso et Tchad) appartiennent à cette région.Afin de déterminer la tendance pluviométrique dans trois pays de cette large bande territoriale (Mauritanie, Sénégal, Burkina Faso), on utilise la méthode graphique chronologique de traitement de l'information (MGCTI) de type "Matrice BERTIN". L'analyse des données pluviométriques montre une reprise des pluies depuis la fin des années 1980 ou les années 1990. Elle fait suite à la longue sécheresse sahélienne subie à partir de 1970.L'analyse des précipitations annuelles montre aussi une relation étroite avec la température de surface de l'océan Atlantique Nord (TNA), ainsi qu'un lien très fort avec l'énergie cumulative des cyclones tropicaux (ACE). Cette reprise des pluies, qui rappelle dans une moindre mesure les années de "vaches grasses" (cycle humide des années 1950-1960), est marquée cependant par une recrudescence sans précédent des inondations urbaines. Ces évènements sont imputables, d'une part, à l'intensification des pluies et, d'autre part, à un développement urbain mal maîtrisé.

A variety of health financing schemes shaped on pre-payment scheme have been implemented across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) to address the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). In Mauritania, the Obstetric Risk Insurance package (ORI) focusing on maternal and perinatal health has been progressively implemented at the health district level since 2002. Here, our main objective was to assess the effectiveness of the ORI in increasing facility-based delivery rates, as well as increases in family planning, antenatal and postnatal care, caesarean delivery and neonatal health, from demographic and health survey data between 2002 and 2011. We also examined whether the effects of the ORI varied between strata of the population. The study was based on a quasi-experimental before-and-after design to assess the causal link between availability of ORI and increase in use of maternal health services and neonatal mortality. In combination with geographical information system, difference-in-differences and odd ratio approaches were used to address our objectives. Indicators of access to care for pregnant women and neonatal health and improved in both non-intervention and intervention groups during the study period. There was no global effect of the availability of ORI on facility-based delivery rates, nor on the use of antenatal and postnatal care services, except for qualified antenatal services. However, delivery rates in local health centres with ORI increased more rapidly than in those with no ORI, the contrary was shown for hospitals. Caesarean delivery and family planning decreased with ORI. Although late neonatal mortality rates remained low in the country, a significant decrease was seen in districts without ORI. Except for some strata of the population, ORI has not really met its objective of attracting more pregnant women towards facility-based health care.

The size and form of cities influence their social and environmental impacts. Whether cities have the same form irrespective of their size is still an open question. We analyse the profile of artificial land and population density, with respect to the distance to their main centre, for the 300 largest European cities. Our analysis combines the GMES/Copernicus Urban Atlas 2006 land use database at 5 m resolution for 300 larger urban zones with more than 100,000 inhabitants and the Geostat population grid at 1 km resolution. We find a remarkable constancy of radial profiles across city sizes. Artificial land profiles scale in the two horizontal dimensions with the square root of city population, while population density profiles scale in three dimensions with its cube root. In short, cities of different size are homothetic in terms of land use and population density, which challenges the idea that larger cities are more parsimonious in the use of land per capita. While earlier literature documented the scaling of average densities (total surface and population) with city size, we document the scaling of the whole radial distance profile with city size, thus liaising intra-urban radial analysis and systems of cities. Our findings also yield homogenous spatial definitions of cities, from which we can re-question urban scaling laws and Zipf’s law for cities.

Although judges were included in the street-level-bureaucracy (SLB) group by Lipsky (1980), sociolegal scholars have barely used this theoretical framework to study them. This article aims to specify their position with respect to SLB in order to bridge the gap between public administration and sociolegal research. Specifically, using a cross-national ethnography of judicial institutions, it compares family trial judges' practice on the ground in France and Canada. General conditions separate them from the core SLB group: encounters with clients are less direct; discretion is more legitimate. However, French judges are far closer to the SLB group than their Canadian counterparts regarding public encounters and case processing. As such, the accuracy of the SLB framework depends on professional and cultural patterns that combine differently in these two national contexts.

The Holocene fluvial and archaeological records in the valleys draining the south-eastern piedmont of the Taurus range present several contrasted phases, interrupted by transition and/or rupture periods. The low terrace records identified in the Middle Euphrates valley between Halfeti and Karke- mish give the following results 1 ) a pre-Holocene incised topography is dated Upper or Late Pleistocene, 2) Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene alluviation deposited sands and silts forming a "high terrace" (+8-10 m) fossilising the previous incision, 3) at mid-Holocene the valley was forested and the landscape stable, 4) at the end of the 5th mill. BC, erosion and incision preceded the instalment of new settlements on the valley floor, 5) high floods followed this incision, 6) during the 2nd mill. BC or only in its second half, the river deposited a +4 m terrace, which was followed by incision during the first centuries of the 1st mill. BC. The comparison with previous works realised within the Turkish and Syrian Middle Euphrates basin shows similarities and differences in the chronology of events and in the interpretation of the possible climatic significance of the changes observed Discussion then tries to take into account 1) the records of global and regional climatic changes, 2) the sizes and geographic characters of the watersheds studied, 3) their position in the whole Euphrates basin, 4) the specific history of man's occupation of the land.

Since early November 2013, dengue fever has received considerable media attention in Burkina Faso [1], [2]. Nevertheless, scientific evidence, entomological knowledge, public information, health worker training, health system preparation, and public health interventions with regard to dengue fever in this country are sorely lacking. As such, our aim in this article is to draw attention to the need for rapid deployment of research and interventions on dengue fever in Burkina Faso, because it appears to have been overlooked, with the focus being, instead, on malaria. This West African country, with a population of 15.75 million and where 100,000 children under five die each year—25,000 of them from malaria [3]—has been profoundly affected by that disease; malaria is today the primary cause of years of life lost and disability-adjusted life years [4]. However, a 2010 national survey revealed that only 54% of children under five with fever went to a health centre, and just 35% of all children received antimalarial drugs [5]. Nonetheless, long-lasting insecticide-treated mosquito nets (LLINs) were distributed nationally and at no charge in 2010 and 2013, and the sale of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) in health centres and by community health workers has been subsidized since 2010 [6], [7]. Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for malaria were also introduced across the country in health centres in 2012 and by community health workers in villages in 2013, improving the detection of febrile diseases due to malaria. At the same time, the arrival of RDTs also made possible the identification of nonmalarial acute undifferentiated fever, including dengue. Given this, we believe it is becoming urgent to address this disease. Dengue fever is a viral vector-borne disease caused by infection in humans of any of the four serotypes (DENV1, DENV2, DENV3, DENV4) of the dengue virus via the bite of the Aedes mosquito [8], [9]. In Burkina Faso, dengue represents an added burden in an epidemiological landscape dominated by malaria and in which national antimalarial programs are experiencing a number of problems in implementation (such as stock shortages of ACT and malaria RDTs) [6]. Despite this, neither the 2010 General Health Forum nor the March 2013 review of the health sector mentioned the problem of dengue fever. It is because of these difficulties in the fight against malaria that the emergence of public and private debates around dengue is worrisome. The media are all focusing on this “new type” of fever, and both the general public and health workers are increasingly complaining that ACTs are ineffective against malaria [2], whereas, for instance, they may not actually be dealing with malaria, but dengue fever. In fact, it is not easy to make a differential diagnosis between dengue and other febrile diseases, such as malaria, in places where they coexist, given that they share many of the same symptoms, such as myalgia, arthralgia, and headache. The difficulties of differentiating among those diseases are compounded by the country's lack of diagnostic resources and laboratory facilities. Hence, at a press conference on another topic (LLINs) held on November 5, 2013, the Minister of Health was compelled to respond to numerous questions on dengue fever. He indicated that, between 2006 and 2008, there had been 683 confirmed cases of dengue in two locations: Ouagadougou, the capital city, and Nouna, a medium-sized city in the country's western region. In October 2013, the Ministry of Health rapidly implemented an investigation limited to four health centres in the capital. Of 111 rapid tests (SD BIOLINE Dengue Duo) performed on patients presenting acute febrile disease lasting two to seven days, 33 (29.7%) were positive, including 25 NS1 (25/33; 75.8%). The majority of these cases (90.9%) involved patients over 15 years of age. Laboratory analyses requested by the Ministry of Health are currently carried out in Dakar (Pasteur Institute) to confirm the dengue RDT results [10]. In fact, a major challenge relating to dengue is that very little is known about its presence in Burkina Faso, whether in humans or in the vector. The first epidemic of dengue appears to have occurred in 1925 [11], and other significant cases linked to serotype 2 were apparently identified in the 1980s [11], [12]. The fact remains that Burkina Faso is one of 34 African countries where cases have been reported since the 2000s [11], [13]. A study in 2003 of 191 blood donors and 492 pregnant women in a rural district and in the capital found seroprevalence ranging from 26.3% to 36.5%, but information about the serotype was not presented [14]. However, to our knowledge, no other study has been done in the ten years since then. There is thus no current estimate of the prevalence and incidence of infection in the population. Our research team recently conducted, in 2013, a population survey in two of the country's medium-sized cities [15]. Of the febrile cases, in the city of Zorgho, 2.7% (3/112), and in the city of Kaya, 9.9% (15/151) showed positive IgM/IgG RTD results, including two AgNS1 positive cases (SD BIOLINE Dengue Duo). Laboratory analyses (reverse transcription PCR) of filter paper samples are being performed by Universidad del Valle (Cali, Colombia). Additionally, although the role of the Aedes aegypti mosquito as the vector of dengue fever is well known [16], [17], and despite the fact that A. aegypti and A. albopictus are present in Burkina Faso [11], there has been no recent entomological study that would provide information about its distribution, especially in the country's large cities, where populations of this very urban mosquito have likely become widespread [2]. Given the resurgence of dengue fever in Burkina Faso and the current media attention, we believe action is urgently needed on two fronts: research and public health interventions (Box 1). Box 1. Needed Research and Actions on Dengue Fever in Burkina Faso Research: Population survey to measure prevalence and serotypes circulation Entomological studies on vector distribution and presence of infection Public health interventions: Surveillance system and laboratory improvement Health staff training on diagnosis and management of dengue Vector control intervention Information targeting the general public In terms of research, there is an urgent need for epidemiological studies, such as population surveys, to measure more precisely the burden of dengue fever, especially in large cities where the vector is very likely to be present. Information is needed not only on prevalence and incidence but also on the serotypes that are circulating, to understand the disease's behaviour and to facilitate the development of intervention strategies or training programs targeted to clinicians' needs [8]. The potential discovery of a new serotype could explain the occurrence of severe cases and previously unknown forms of the disease. This will require specific training of physicians to ensure treatment that is better adapted to the context. In addition, deaths and severe cases of the disease should be systematically investigated to uncover the determinants so that appropriate action can be taken. Entomological studies are also important to gather better information on vector distribution [18]. Up to now, very few researchers and research teams have tackled the problem of dengue fever in Burkina Faso. For example, the national yellow fever reference laboratory has no ELISA kits for performing analyses. While certain competencies are available, they have not been mobilized, because dengue fever had not been seen in a very long time and was not considered a public health problem. Until a disease is recognized as a problem, there will be no search for a solution to contain it [19]. Researchers and research funding agencies must therefore now mobilize to develop new knowledge. The health system, which is already finding it very difficult to cope with malaria [20], is not prepared to contend with dengue fever. Health workers, mainly nurses and nurse assistants in both the public and private sectors, are not sufficiently trained for syndromic case management of dengue. Training based on the current WHO guidelines could be a starting point. A needs assessment should be done for health-worker training to improve the accurate diagnosis and treatment of patients with fever who do not have malaria. In general, the laboratory and surveillance systems need to be improved and decentralized. The population is not well informed on this subject, and a lot of erroneous information has been circulating since the media began focusing on this issue in early November 2013. In public health, rumours can very soon have disastrous effects [21]. Finally, the effort to control the vector, abandoned many years ago in Burkina Faso, must absolutely be revived, because it is one of the most effective means of dealing with the problem while waiting for a vaccine or another effective dengue control strategy [18]. The State and its technical and financial partners need to mobilize now so that the health system and its public health interventions can begin working on the most effective management of dengue fever [20].

Africa spans the hemispheres from temperate region to temperate region and has a long history of hominin evolution. Although the number of Quaternary palaeoclimatic records from the continent is increasing, much of the history of spatial and temporal climatic variability is still debated. Speleothems, as archives of terrestrial hydroclimate variability, can help reveal this history. Here we review the progress made to date, with a focus on the first version of the Speleothem Isotopes Synthesis and AnaLysis (SISAL) database. The geology of Africa has limited development of large karst regions to four areas: along the northern coast bordering the Mediterranean, eastern Africa and the Horn of Africa, southwestern Africa and southern Africa. Exploitation of the speleothem palaeoclimate archives in these regions is uneven, with long histories of research, e.g., in South Africa, but large areas with no investigations such as West Africa. Consequently, the evidence of past climate change reviewed here is irregularly sampled in both time and space. Nevertheless, we show evidence of migration of the monsoon belt, with enhanced rainfall during interglacials observed in northeast Africa, southern Arabia and the northern part of southern Africa. Evidence from eastern Africa indicates significant decadal and centennial scale rainfall variability. In northwestern and southern Africa, precession and eccentricity influence speleothem growth, largely through changing synoptic storm activity.

In Mauritania, obstetrical risk insurance (ORI) has been progressively implemented at the health district level since 2002 and was available in 25% of public healthcare facilities in 2015. The ORI scheme is based on pre-payment scheme principles and focuses on increasing the quality of and access to both maternal and perinatal healthcare. Compared with many community-based health insurance schemes, the ORI scheme is original because it is not based on risk pooling. For a pre-payment of 16-18 USD, women are covered during their pregnancy for antenatal care, skilled delivery, emergency obstetrical care [including caesarean section (C-section) and transfer] and a postnatal visit. The objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of ORI enrolment on maternal and child health services using data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) conducted in 2015. A total of 4172 women who delivered within the last 2 years before the interview were analysed. The effect of ORI enrolment on the outcomes was estimated using a propensity score matching estimation method. Fifty-eight per cent of the studied women were aware of ORI, and among these women, more than two-thirds were enrolled. ORI had a beneficial effect among the enrolled women by increasing the probability of having at least one prenatal visit by 13%, the probability of having four or more visits by 11% and the probability of giving birth at a healthcare facility by 15%. However, we found no effect on postnatal care (PNC), C-section rates or neonatal mortality. This study provides evidence that a voluntary pre-payment scheme focusing on pregnant women improves healthcare services utilization during pregnancy and delivery. However, no effect was found on PNC or neonatal mortality. Some efforts should be exerted to improve communication and accessibility to ORI.

Si quelques femmes ont fait une timide entrée à l’université en France sous le Second Empire, c’est sous la Troisième république que les femmes conquièrent ce lieu réservé aux hommes : au début du XXe siècle elles représentent 3% des inscrits contre 30% en 1938. Cette conquête est le fait de quatre types de pionnières. Le premier, la bachelière, résulte de l’autodidaxie des femmes puisque l’enseignement secondaire féminin mis en place tardivement en 1880, ne prépare pas au baccalauréat, premier grade de l’université. Le second, les étudiantes de l’université de Paris, révèle les difficultés rencontrées par ces femmes pour pénétrer dans certaines facultés – le Droit en particulier – et pour exister en tant que femmes qui étudient. Le troisième, les étudiantes étrangères, sort de l’oubli celles qui ont ouvert la voie aux étudiantes françaises. Enfin, le quatrième, les diplômées, nous permet d’approcher la fonctionnalité ou la non-fonctionnalité des études féminines.