Institut für Klimaschutz, Energie und Mobilität

Urban transportation in the next few decades will shift worldwide toward electrification and automation, with the final aim of increasing energy efficiency and safety for passengers. Such a big change requires strong collaboration and efforts among public administration, research and stakeholders in developing, testing and promoting these technologies in public transportation. Working in this direction, this work provides a review of the impact of the introduction of driverless electric minibuses, for the first and last mile transportation, in public service. More specifically, this paper covers the state of the art in terms of technological background for automation, energy efficiency via electrification and the current state of the legal framework in Europe with a focus on the Baltic Sea Region.

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Gorleben was on the border with the former East Germany, but post-unification it is in the middle of the country. Radioactive waste is also stored in the north-east at the Polish border. 2. In November Vattenfall announced its intention to sue the German government, seeking compensation for Germany's phase-out of nuclear power at the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in Washington, DC (Spiegel 2011).

BACKGROUND: This paper is related to the current stage of development in the Western Balkans. Despite becoming growing instruments to finance sustainable green development, debt swaps and social or sustainability bonds are relative novelties in this region. At the same time, the development needs are huge, especially in the light of the COVID-19 aftermath. RESULTS: The review of both historic financial instruments, such as the debt for nature swaps, and more recent ones, such as sustainability bonds in its variations, highlight the potential for use in developing countries. The relatively recent case from Montenegro and the recent issuance of the green bond in Serbia showcase the possibilities. The focus of this paper is an analysis of the public debt position of Western Balkan countries. The growing level of public debt over the past decade points to a lack of adequate interventions and a relatively imminent need for fiscal consolidation. The research suggests that environmental, social, governance/sustainability-linked bonds and debt-for-climate swap investments as innovative financial instruments that hold promise in leveraging additional finance to support the sustainability goals of the six countries of the Western Balkans. This influx of capital would be particularly advantageous, given their needs relative to EU accession and their economic and structural challenges. The recommendations for policymakers are derived based on the history and features of green bonds as well as debt-for-nature swaps and their diverse underlying mechanisms which are adaptable to the respective countries. CONCLUSIONS: The related countries would benefit from exploring more innovative approaches to finance sustainable societies. In close cooperation with the EU and taking the European Green Deal into consideration, it is recommended that the six countries of the Western Balkans design financing mechanisms that will bring increased transparency to the different policies and more accountability for their implementation. Applying the recommended modality may help keep the problem of the public debt at bay, while additional funds may support implementation of structural reforms.

Offshore wind power development is expected to play an important role in meeting the EU climate targets. To integrate offshore wind power, advanced offshore infrastructures such as meshed grids are suggested to optimise the grid development. Meshed offshore grids refer to integrated offshore infrastructure where offshore wind power hubs are interconnected to several countries as opposed to radial connection linking the wind farm to one single country and market. However, development of meshed architectures is hindered by the legal and regulatory barriers. Earlier research has identified the lack of cooperation and misalignments in national legal and regulatory frameworks as being the main risk factors in integrated offshore network investments. The purpose of this article is to investigate whether a supra-national TSO could facilitate regional cooperation and coordinated investments to develop meshed offshore grids. Several studies have discussed the case of North Seas, but the Baltic Sea region has had less attention despite the large offshore wind development potential. In this paper, a multi-disciplinary approach combining legal dogmatics and regulatory economics is used to identify the existing barriers and the possible solutions. The Baltic Sea countries are used as illustration. We suggest legal and regulatory recommendations that comply with the EU energy policy targets of sustainability, competition and reliability.

Abstract The paper presents the public building typology, energy demand estimations and retrofit scenarios, as well as associated costs and benefits for energy-saving measures in the public building stock of Albania. First, representative building types were identified to estimate their energy performance, and define retrofit packages. Second, this information was used to analyse the costs and benefits of the different thermal efficiency retrofits. Apart from specific benefits due to cost savings in the use phase, co-benefits were estimated to understand their dimension and influence on decision-making. Finally, energy efficiency supply curves were developed to show the priority sequence of retrofits and building types. It was found that due to the growing wealth in Albania, user behaviour will change a lot in the future. Energy usage in the public building sector will increase and mitigate savings resulting from energy-saving measures making saved energy costs invisible. However, if other benefits beyond energy savings are considered, the cost efficiency of the measures remain obvious. The recommended approach can be used to assist decision-making and allocate funds.

Thermal energy demand in the residential building sector represents a big challenge for Serbia. In order to understand how to reduce this demand, and thereby avoiding GHG gas emissions, a bottom-up simulation model was developed. The model built the business-as-usual and two decarbonization scenarios up to 2030. For each scenario, such results as useful and final energy consumption, associated CO2 emissions, energy costs, investment costs and others were prepared at each level of the building stock segmentation. To develop such a detailed model, the topology of the residential building stock was developed and used as an input. For each individual building type, three retrofit packages of different stringency were analyzed. The paper delivers several important messages for the decarbonization of Serbia. First, it argues that the level of thermal energy services consumed by Serbian households is inadequate to address their needs. Second, the households of Serbia are likely to consume more wood than it was reported by national energy balances. Third, thermal energy efficiency retrofits can significantly reduce household energy demand at the same time as offering higher thermal comfort. However, the required investments are high and therefore benefits beyond energy cost savings should also be considered in order to make the transition to the low energy building stock economically feasible. <br><br><font color="red"><b> This article has been corrected. Link to the correction <u><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/TSCI181228017E">10.2298/TSCI181228017E</a><u></b></font>

With regard to the decarbonisation of the heating sector, district heating is of paramount importance considering its potential for the efficient utilisation of renewable energies and waste heat sources. Against this background, the transformation and expansion of an existing heating network in the city of Moosburg an der Isar (Germany) is planned within the “District Heating 4.0” funding programme of the German Federal Office of Economic Affairs and Export Control. The innovative concept involves a heat supply based entirely on renewable energies and industrial waste heat. In particular, the integration of unused waste heat from mechanical and chemical industrial processes enables an ecologically and economically optimal supply concept. Depending on the temperature level, the waste heat is fed into the grid directly or by an intermediate heat pump. In addition, solar thermal systems on roofs are integrated into the grid and optimised in terms of efficiency by using a heat storage. Biomass boilers operated by woodchips of waste wood cover peak loads as well as part of the base load and guarantee the security of supply. Considering the overall system behaviour, the multivalent concept is designed to maximise the share of renewable fuel-free heat sources and capitalise on the beneficial marginal costs of waste heat and solar thermal energy. A profitability analysis shows that low heat generation costs can be realised, not least because of the funding of investment costs. In addition to the technical design process and the economic evaluation, the analysis of legal aspects is a key element of this first phase of the project. In further project phases, the implementation of the heating network, the monitoring of the energy flows and the ongoing acquisition of new customers will be carried out.

Prior to the integration of sustainable development principles into the tourism industry of Pavlodar region, it is essential to assess the current situation and the readiness of the sector participants to implement them. This requires exploring international standards of sustainable tourism and adapting them for evaluation by managers, entrepreneurs, local communities and tourists. For this purpose, questionnaires were developed based on the sustainability criteria approved by the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC), including the assessment of sustainable management, social and environmental sustainability. The questionnaire results informed SWOT analysis that identified lack of awareness and motivation among industry participants to implement sustainable tourism due to additional costs, climate constraints and lack of government support. The environmentalism of the destinations and the government’s investment policy were identified among the strengths.

Local online marketplaces are being launched in many cities in order to better digitally position inner-city retailers against the backdrop of structural change. This article sheds light on the structures and actors involved in the implementation of eBay Deine Stadt, an initiative for local online marketplaces by eBay that has been established in more than 30 cities and regions in Germany since 2020. Based on expert interviews with a consulting firm commissioned by eBay for the implementation, as well as with municipal actors, the initial experiences, expectations, and criticisms are discussed. The goal was to conduct an initial evaluation of the local online marketplace program eBay Deine Stadt. The article thereby focuses on the role of eBay as an infrastructure provider and cooperation partner, as well as the associated processes, problems, and expectations. Based on the findings, further questions concerning future dynamics of city centres will be identified.

Abstract In an action for annulment against the European Union (EU) Emissions Trading Directive, both the EU General Court and the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) found the claim to be inadmissible because the applicants did not satisfy the infamous Plaumann criteria. Conversely, at the national level, the German Federal Constitutional Court (GFCC) accepted to decide on a claim by individuals arguing that the German Climate Protection Act violated their fundamental rights. In its decision, the GFCC makes far‐reaching statements on the protection of fundamental rights in times of global climate change. Some might even argue the GFCC established a fundamental right to climate protection. By contrast, the CJEU did not yet decide on the effective protection of intertemporal rights or a right to climate protection respectively. Almost 50 years after the Solange I decision, one must ask whether there is a substantial deficit of fundamental rights protection at the EU level.

The quick adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) requires a unified interoperable charging infrastructure across the EU. The H2020 project USER-CHI aims at devising the guidelines for an interoperable charging infrastructure for EVs. To make access to the charging infrastructure possible irrespectively of vehicle brands and operators, an analysis of the existing interoperability framework was considered essential within the USER-CHI project. Pursuant to this, IKEM (Institute for Climate Protection, Energy and Mobility) developed INFRA (INteroperability FRAmework), a study that contains an analysis of the four layers that condition interoperability in the electromobility sector (organizational, semantic, technical, legal). This paper aims at giving publicity to INFRA and to add new inputs on some of the most relevant aspects through literature review.

Kotchen et al. find that the greenhouse gas mitigation potential identified by the IPCC in its latestassessment report is larger and cheaper than what is found in widely used integrated assessmentmodels, like DICE, FUND, and PAGE.They suggest that the discrepancy between the various curves could be resolved by excluding theWhat worries us most is the sentence in the Kotchen et al. paper saying that they “are not aware of… efforts to cross-validate top-down mitigation cost assumptions with bottom-up empiricalestimates”. Given the strong dynamics in mitigation potentials, this raises the question of whetherthe models concerned, like DICE, FUND, and PAGE are still fit for purpose as a tool for climate changecost-benefit analysis.

<ns4:p>In 2021 the number of electric vehicles (EV) circulating in the European Union (EU) was higher than ever before. The innovative solutions of the user centric charging infrastructure (USER-CHI) project aim at devising the basic guidelines for an interoperable charging infrastructure for EV. The future goal is for users to be able to charge “anywhere, anytime”. USER-CHI works towards a large-scale e-mobility market and the development of integrated smart solutions and new business models. These will be demonstrated in five urban areas, which are part of the Trans-European Transport Network corridor (Barcelona metropolitan area, Rome, Berlin, Budapest, and Turku).</ns4:p> <ns4:p> To make access to the charging infrastructure possible irrespectively of vehicle brands and operators, an analysis of the existing interoperability framework was considered essential within the USER-CHI project. Pursuant to this, the Institute for Climate Protection, Energy and Mobility (IKEM) developed INFRA (Interoperability Framework) <ns4:bold>,</ns4:bold> a study that contains an analysis of the four layers that condition interoperability in the electromobility sector (organizational, semantic, technical and legal). Building on this analysis, the existing barriers for interoperability in each layer were identified and guidelines and recommendations were elaborated. The baseline of this paper are the role schemes, guidelines and recommendations elaborated for INFRA summarized in minimum requirements within each layer. The INFRA results are already available on CORDIS. </ns4:p> <ns4:p>In addition, further desk research shows the latest developments in the EU regarding electromobility and puts INFRA in the context of the most recent discourse. The new insights of this paper offer an updated overall short summary of the main requirements for an interoperability framework for electromobility in the EU.</ns4:p> <ns4:p>In conclusion the current developments underline the importance of the minimum requirements identified in INFRA and first steps towards a more interoperable infrastructure system have been taken.</ns4:p>

Abstract Das Leitprojekt TransHyDE, mit einer Laufzeit von April 2021 bis März 2025, bewertet und testet Wasserstoff‐Transportlösungen in insgesamt elf Demonstrationsprojekten. Die praktische Erprobung wird durch eine wissenschaftliche Begleitforschung ergänzt, zu der auch das Teilprojekt TransHyDE‐Norm zählt. Zur Umsetzung der in TransHyDE behandelten Transportoptionen bedarf es einheitlicher Vorgaben in Form von Normen, Standards und Zertifizierungsprogrammen. Ziel des Vorhabens ist es daher, die Normung, Zertifizierung und Standardisierung von Transport‐, Verteil‐ und Speicheroptionen für Wasserstoff bzw. andere chemische Energieträger ganzheitlich zu untersuchen. So sollen Regelungslücken aufgezeigt und Lösungsansätze entwickelt werden.

The paper presents the status quo, barriers, and drivers for multimodal traffic management (MTM) from an economic and legal perspective, performing an in-depth literature review and eleven interviews with practitioners and academic experts. Main outcomes include that big data opens the possibilities for a better implementation of MTM and related business models, but technical equipment and complex processes can be obstacles. Further, the legal framework for MTM remains sparse and data protection requirements (GDPR) can be barriers as well. Especially for access to and merging of (traffic) data, legal provisions will have to be refined since incentives for companies to voluntarily exchange data are lacking. All in all, MTM allows for new business models, and the integration of innovative (upcoming) means of transportation, pushing for a fast transition of the mobility sector.

The principle of non-refoulement is often described as the cornerstone of refugee law. It prohibits States from expelling people from their territories to States where their life or freedom would be threatened. The principle of non- refoulement is, however, not only enshrined in refugee law. The United Nations Human Rights Treaty Body System has developed a protection from refoulement that is considerably broader than the protection granted under international refugee law. It is also broader than the human rights protection provided by the ECtHR. This article will show that the UN Treaty Bodies’ approach to the principle of non-refoulement gives a much clearer framework for rejections of migrants at a State’s frontier.

With a growing influence of intermittent renewable energy sources and ambitious targets being set by the European Union, energy storage has been gaining more importance in the context of energy transition and ensuring security of energy supply. This paper, therefore, elaborates on large-scale storage possibilities as well as their contribution to the “Energiewende <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">1</sup> ”, emphasising not the self-evident significance of each storage option, but the meaning of their combination. New concepts and ideas regarding long-term energy storage play in this scenario a crucial role. In addition to that, geopolitical position of Norway will be analysed as well as cooperation possibilities, trying to answer the question: why it is important to assure a firm, strategic position towards Norway and how it deals with energy storage in a long run. By responding to this question, the paper primarily relies on available secondary data supplemented with some primary data to validate findings and provide evidence. It aims to contribute to better understanding of different large-scale storage concepts and to address issues around cooperation with Norway.

This article examines how sufficiency, an approach to sustainability focused on reducing resource consumption, can be communicated as a pathway to a good life rather than a call to sacrifice. Based on a representative survey in Germany, the findings show that although the term “sufficiency” is unfamiliar to many people, core values such as health, financial security, and social connection offer promising entry points for communication. We highlight how structural inequalities shape the feasibility of sufficiency. Individuals with care responsibilities often face time constraints that limit their capacity to adopt sufficiency practices, while many low-income groups already live within ecological limits, often involuntarily. Sufficiency policies can empower these individuals by improving access to services, mobility, and durable goods. This article advocates a constructivist, power-sensitive communication approach that links sufficiency to everyday needs, social justice, and enabling policy frameworks, reframing it not as an individual sacrifice but as a collective right and a foundation for more livable, equitable futures.

Abstract The growing demand for electric cars in Europe necessitates planning tools designed to meet user needs in charging network design. One such product is CLICK – a charging infrastructure planning tool. During the demonstration phase of CLICK, technical and user acceptance feedback was collected and will be evaluated in this paper. The evaluation will focus on possible drivers and barriers in the design of CLICK to optimize the spatial planning of charging infrastructure. In addition to the space requirements, the subjective perception and the resulting acceptance are of elementary importance for the success of nationwide availability of electric mobility and the (partial) substitution of cars with combustion engines. Evaluating CLICK’s user acceptance contributes to better identifying user needs and preferences. Hence, the tool can be developed in accordance with those needs and increase its attractiveness. The main research questions are: How satisfied are users with the current charging infrastructure planning tool CLICK? What opportunities and obstacles can be derived for the implementation of charging infrastructure?

The study presents the first detailed carbon footprint assessment of tourism businesses in Kazakhstan's Pavlodar region, aiming to establish a baseline and identify decarbonization pathways that align with the country's 2060 carbon neutrality target. Using the GHG Protocol methodology, we calculated the footprint for two tourism properties in the Bayanaul district: a year-round holiday home and a seasonal summer hotel. Two pilot sites were selected to be representative of the region's tourism businesses, exhibiting distinct operational and energy consumption patterns. The analysis revealed distinct emission profiles and significant contributions from indirect sources. The year-round facility, reliant on coal for heating, generated a total of 529 tCO2-eq. in З, whereas the seasonal hotel produced 185 tCO2-eq. A critical finding for both businesses was the dominance of Scope 3 emissions, which accounted for 57% to 62% of their total footprints, primarily driven by tourist transportation, waste generation, and food procurement. Scope 1 emissions from on-site fuel combustion were significant only for the year-round property, while Scope 2 emissions from purchased electricity were a key factor for both. Based on these findings and guided by the Science-Based Targets initiative (SBTi) and Kazakhstan's national strategies, such as the Concept for Transition to Green Economy and the Strategy for Achieving Carbon Neutrality by 2060, we propose a decarbonization roadmap. The targets include an absolute emissions reduction of 15% by 2030, 25% by 2040, and 50% by 2050. Key recommendations include phasing out coal by 2050, transitioning to low-carbon electricity by 2035, and implementing strategies to mitigate value chain emissions, including those associated with transportation, nutrition, and waste. This research provides a replicable framework for tourism operators in Kazakhstan and similar regions to measure and manage their environmental impact, contributing to a more sustainable tourism sector.