Institute for Urban and Regional Research

The capabilities for visualization, rapid data retrieval, and manipulation in geographic information systems (GIS) have created the need for new techniques of exploratory data analysis that focus on the “spatial” aspects of the data. The identification of local patterns of spatial association is an important concern in this respect. In this paper, I outline a new general class of local indicators of spatial association (LISA) and show how they allow for the decomposition of global indicators, such as Moran's I, into the contribution of each observation. The LISA statistics serve two purposes. On one hand, they may be interpreted as indicators of local pockets of nonstationarity, or hot spots, similar to the G i and G* i statistics of Getis and Ord (1992). On the other hand, they may be used to assess the influence of individual locations on the magnitude of the global statistic and to identify “outliers,” as in Anselin's Moran scatterplot (1993a). An initial evaluation of the properties of a LISA statistic is carried out for the local Moran, which is applied in a study of the spatial pattern of conflict for African countries and in a number of Monte Carlo simulations.

The authors investigated at the country level the effects of four cultural orientations identified and studied by Hofstede on two commonly recognized response biases: extreme response style and acquiescent responding. Data are presented from approximately 18,000 survey questionnaires completed by employees in 19 nations on five continents (Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, India, Japan, Malaysia, Portugal, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Mexico, the Philippines, Poland, Singapore, Hong Kong, France, and Italy). Hierarchical linear modeling was employed to examine the associations between person-level response styles and country-level cultural orientations. Consistent with theoretical expectations, power distance and masculinity were found to be positively and independently associated with extreme response style. Individualism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity were each found to be negatively associated with acquiescent response behavior. Further research is needed to identify how question characteristics might interact with cultural orientations to influence response behavior.

The previous chapters in this Handbook have shown that spatial development, or land use, determines the need for spatial interaction, or transport, but that transport, by the accessibility it provides, also determines spatial development. However, it is difficult to empirically isolate impacts of land use on transport and vice versa because of the multitude of concurrent changes of other factors. This poses a problem if the likely impacts of integrated land-use and transport policies to reduce the demand for travel are to be predicted. There are principally three methods to predict those impacts. The first is to ask people how they would change their location and mobility behaviour if certain factors, such as land use regulations or transport costs, would change ('stated preference'). The second consists of drawing conclusions from observed decision behaviour of people under different conditions on how they would be likely to behave if these factors would change ('revealed preference'). The third method is to simulate human decision behaviour in mathematical models. All three methods have their advantages and disadvantages. Surveys can reveal also subjective factors of location and mobility decisions, however, their respondents can only make conjec-tures about how they would behave in still unknown situations, and the validity of such con-

BACKGROUND: Motivation in learning behaviour and education is well-researched in general education, but less in medical education. AIM: To answer two research questions, 'How has the literature studied motivation as either an independent or dependent variable? How is motivation useful in predicting and understanding processes and outcomes in medical education?' in the light of the Self-determination Theory (SDT) of motivation. METHODS: A literature search performed using the PubMed, PsycINFO and ERIC databases resulted in 460 articles. The inclusion criteria were empirical research, specific measurement of motivation and qualitative research studies which had well-designed methodology. Only studies related to medical students/school were included. RESULTS: Findings of 56 articles were included in the review. Motivation as an independent variable appears to affect learning and study behaviour, academic performance, choice of medicine and specialty within medicine and intention to continue medical study. Motivation as a dependent variable appears to be affected by age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, personality, year of medical curriculum and teacher and peer support, all of which cannot be manipulated by medical educators. Motivation is also affected by factors that can be influenced, among which are, autonomy, competence and relatedness, which have been described as the basic psychological needs important for intrinsic motivation according to SDT. CONCLUSION: Motivation is an independent variable in medical education influencing important outcomes and is also a dependent variable influenced by autonomy, competence and relatedness. This review finds some evidence in support of the validity of SDT in medical education.

The Second National Assessment on Natural and Related Technological Hazards calls land-use planning the single most promising approach for bringing about sustainable hazard mitigation. This article describes the essential elements of land-use planning for hazard mitigation. It highlights important choices involved in formulating planning processes, undertaking hazard assessments, and crafting programs to manage urban development so that it is more resilient to natural hazards. Research conducted over the past two decades suggests that if local governments make the right choices in crafting land-use-planning programs, communities will be less likely to suffer severe losses of lives and property in natural disasters.

Expert interviews are a widely-used qualitative interview method often aiming at gaining information about or exploring a specific field of action. This paper wants to move beyond the focus on explicit expert knowledge by emphasizing the experts’ individual perspectives that affect social practices in a field of action. The paper addresses the investigation of this implicit, interpretative expert knowledge by developing the ‘problem-centred expert interview’. This approach merges the theory-generating expert interview that discusses the social relevance of expert knowledge and the problem-centred interview (PCI) that offers a dialogic-discursive interview procedure investigating individual perspectives. By drawing upon an empirical study in human geography, the paper demonstrates how one could conduct and analyse this methodical combination in research practice. The following discussion shows that, despite some pitfalls, the combination appears fruitful for divulging implicit expert knowledge and understanding the inner logics of decision-making processes. The paper concludes with an outlook on possible fields of application.

Models of the factors affecting community structure following a disturbance differ in the emphasis placed on adaptations to the physical environment and to biotic interactions. We investigated the hypothesis that the duration of a habitat following disturbance mediates the relative importance of physical and biotic control. We combined detailed information on natural populations in a series of temporary ponds with small-scale experiments on specific processes. We compared data on presence/absence and abundance of taxa from temporary ponds showing a gradient of habitat duration with 3 simple models of community structure that incorporate random forces, life history adaptations, and biotic interactions, respectively. Different scales of resolution in describing community structure provide different emphases on which processes are important in these communities. The Life History Model explained patterns of presence/absence in the ponds, but not patterns of abundance of many taxa which best fit a model in which the importance of predation and competition in structuring communities increases with increasing duration. Experimental studies confirmed that the effect of predation and competition in temporary pond communities depends on habitat duration. Predation on all prey species examined increased with increasing pond duration. Predators were more diverse and more abundant in long-duration ponds where effects of their consumption on the abundance of prey taxa were greater than in shorter-duration ponds. Predators from long-duration ponds fed preferentially on prey taxa that predominate in shorter-duration habitats such as Aedes mosquitoes and the fairy shrimp Eubranchipus. Competition between Daphnia and rotifers occurred primarily in intermediate-duration ponds, where Daphnia at typical denities was capable of drastically reducing abundances of Keratella cochlearis in cultures. However, at densities found in both short- and long-duration habitats, Daphnia had no effect.

Abstract The study reported in this article tested connections between five land use controls and the racial composition of the communities that use them. A survey of localities in the 25 largest U.S. metropolitan areas showed that low-density-only zoning, which restricts residential densities to fewer than eight dwelling units per acre, consistently reduced rental housing; this, in turn, limited the number of Black and Hispanic residents. Building permit caps were also associated with lowered proportions of Hispanic residents. Other controls tested—urban growth boundaries, adequate public facilities ordinances, and moratoria—had limited effects on either housing types or racial distribution.

The ever-increasing concentration of people and economic growth in the largest cities relative to the rest of the country has slowed down or even reversed in many of the developed European countries over the last decade. This trend contradicts what the global cities, urban economics and new economic geography literature would predict. This trend can be interpreted from two points of view: (1) the trend is due to large obstacles to further large city urbanization and thus is inefficient or (2) this trend highlights alternative pathways to growth than the mega-city approach and may be as, if not more, efficient. This trend may be linked to Europe's uniquely polycentric urban structure with high number of small- and medium-sized cities. In addition, improvements in the access to services, including broadband, outside large cities may have facilitated the higher growth rates of smaller centres and rural regions and increased their appeal for residents and firms. Last but not least, negative externalities in the large cities, such as congestion costs, pollution, labour crowding and high cost of living, may increase the appeal of smaller centres and rural regions.

Given the aim to motivate consumers to behave in an environmentally friendly manner, there is a need to understand how consumers’ environmental behavior can be influenced and what variables predict environmental behavior. This article applies structural equation models (path analyses) to investigate these issues, with experienced social norm, assumed consequences of behavior and personal norm as independent variables of recycling behavior. The study is based on a Norwegian survey. As predicted, the social norm revealed no direct link to behavior. Rather, the effect of the social norm seemed to depend on an intervening personal norm. The possible social pressure exercised by family members was investigated. Assumed environmental consequences of behavior and reported behavior were found to be only loosely connected. Furthermore, assumed consequences of behavior revealed no mediating effect on the link between personal norm and behavior, which is contrary to what Schwartz’s theory on altruistic behavior would imply.

Scholars of the geography of innovation have produced an impressive body of literature over the last decades. However, until recently this research focused on successful core regions, implicitly assuming that there is no innovation in peripheral areas. This view is being increasingly questioned, which is reflected by a rising number of papers, special issues, and edited volumes on innovation outside of agglomerations. Hence, this rapidly emerging field calls for a critical survey. In order to identify a future research agenda, this article conducts a systematic literature review of the work on innovation in the periphery (1960–2016). As such, it explores the recurring themes and key issues of the field and discusses the various periphery concepts applied, ranging from a geographic to a functional perspective on various scales. In doing so, it outlines options for policy makers and suggests avenues for future research: first, the periphery concept needs more refinement. Second, future studies should include systematic comparisons of regions. Third, an evolutionary perspective might provide new insights. Fourth, future work could explore the benefits peripheries offer for certain kinds of innovation. Fifth, urban–rural linkages might be of higher relevance than assumed. Sixth, research should go beyond the well-known examples. Finally, the analysis could be extended by applying a broader understanding of innovation.

This article assesses the spatial–temporal persistence of a dynamic phenomenon: start-ups. Two mechanisms that explain persistence in start-up rates are distinguished: (i) determinants of start-ups that are spatially ‘sticky’ and durable and (ii) path dependence in start-up activities in the form of a response mechanism between previous and current start-up activities. A dynamic panel analysis of the relationship between lagged start-up rates and current start-up rates confirms that both effects are important in explaining persistence. The second mechanism implies a regional dimension in persistence, such that regions with high levels of start-up rates will exhibit stronger persistence. We find empirical evidence of this using quantile regression techniques.

In the United Kingdom, levels of physical activity in the general population are low 1 and there is great potential for improving public health by promoting physical activity. 2 To achieve this health professionals need to have a good understanding of the principal barriers that operate and, in a UK study of people aged 16-74 years these included lack of time or recreational facilities, poor motivation, and ill health. 1 Barriers vary by age 1 3 and social class 3 but knowledge of variation with other measures of socioeconomic position is scarce. We studied the relation between perceived barriers to physical activity, socioeconomic position, and other social characteristics in men and women aged 16-74 years.

A regional survey of management and crop type and soil organic matter (SOM) content was conducted in one soil series in the Netherlands (loamy, mixed, mesic, Fluventic Eutrudept). The objective was to determine the effects of land use history on SOM contents in a prime agricultural soil, using available soil survey information and statistical analyses. Soil organic matter content is a relatively stable, integrating soil characteristic that reflects long‐term land use and is an important indicator of soil quality. The SOM contents and information about past land use were obtained from 45 fields. Land use history was expressed in terms of (i) tillage; (ii) crop type; and (iii) use of chemical fertilizers, (iv) manure, and (v) biocides, for six successive periods (63–31, 31–15, 15–7, 7–3, 3–1, and 1–0 yr before sampling). Only four land use types occurred: conventional‐arable, conventional‐grass, organic‐arable, and organic‐grass. The SOM contents ranged between 17 and 88 g kg −1 Regression models of the actual SOM content as a function of crop type and management in the different periods showed that SOM contents were increased under long‐term grass or, to a lesser extent, by organic farming, when compared with conventional‐arable use. The regression model depends on the nature of land use history in any particular region and on the length of the selected periods, but it provides an easy method to predict SOM content as a function of management in a given soil series. The method can be an alternative to simulation modeling in situations where detailed data records from long‐term field experiments are not available.

Abstract Hurricane Katrina was the greatest urban and regional disaster in U.S. history. The rebuilding of New Orleans and surrounding areas of Louisiana and Mississippi will require the largest and most complex planning effort in my lifetime. To succeed, we must learn from disasters of the past, while also applying the planning knowledge of the present. From past disasters, we know that successful reconstruction requires both outside funding and local citizen involvement. As planners, we know that the processes should be rich in data, imagination, communication, and participation. Optimistically, a new New Orleans will involve improved flood safety, revitalized neighborhoods, housing opportunities for all, and equitable treatment of all residents. Planners have an obligation to take an active role and advocate for the funding and full participation necessary to achieve these goals. The alternative would be a city that is poor, unsafe, and unequal. This is the greatest planning problem most of us have ever seen, and it warrants a correspondingly large response.

This paper addresses the problem of steering a group of vehicles along given spatial paths while holding a desired time-varying geometrical formation pattern. The solution to this problem, henceforth referred to as the coordinated path-following (CPF) problem, unfolds in two basic steps. First, a path-following (PF) control law is designed to drive each vehicle to its assigned path, with a nominal speed profile that may be path dependent. This is done by making each vehicle approach a virtual target that moves along the path according to a conveniently defined dynamic law. In the second step, the speeds of the virtual targets (also called coordination states) are adjusted about their nominal values so as to synchronize their positions and achieve, indirectly, vehicle coordination. In the problem formulation, it is explicitly considered that each vehicle transmits its coordination state to a subset of the other vehicles only, as determined by the communications topology adopted. It is shown that the system that is obtained by putting together the PF and coordination subsystems can be naturally viewed as either the feedback or the cascade connection of the latter two. Using this fact and recent results from nonlinear systems and graph theory, conditions are derived under which the PF and the coordination errors are driven to a neighborhood of zero in the presence of communication losses and time delays. Two different situations are considered. The first captures the case where the communication graph is alternately connected and disconnected (brief connectivity losses). The second reflects an operational scenario where the union of the communication graphs over uniform intervals of time remains connected (uniformly connected in mean). To better root the paper in a nontrivial design example, a CPF algorithm is derived for multiple underactuated autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). Simulation results are presented and discussed.

Abstract This paper analyses Italian interregional migration flows. The approach taken is to decompose labour mobility flows into short distance and long distance migration and to model the effects of economic variables, social capital and quality of life variables, and amenity variables, on the mobility behaviour of individuals. We estimate these different types of migration flows using a negative binomial model, augmented with instruments to control for potential endogeneity issues. Our findings demonstrate that long distance migration reflects a disequilibrium model of migration whereas short distance migration largely reflects an equilibrium model of migration. As such, attempts to model interregional migration in general will be mis-specified as the simultaneously-operating underlying mobility systems are quite different in nature. Migration éloignée et rapprochée en Italie : rôle de facteurs économiques, sociaux et environnementaux Résumé La présente communication analyse les flux migratoires interrégionaux en Italie. Le principe adopté consiste à décomposer les flux de mobilité de la main-d’æuvre en migrations rapprochée et migration éloignée, puis de modéliser les effets de variables économiques, de variables propres au capital social et à la qualité de vie, et de variables sur le plan de l'agrément sur le comportement de la mobilité des particuliers. Nous effectuons une estimation de ces différents types de flux migratoires en utilisant un modèle binomial négatif, renforcé par des instruments pour le contrôle de questions d'endogénéité potentielles. Nos conclusions démontrent que la migration éloignée reflète un modèle de déséquilibre de la migration, alors que la migration rapprochée reflète en grand partie un modèle déséquilibre de la migration. De cette façon, toutes tentatives de modélisation de migrations interrégionales seront spécifiées de façon erronée, du fait de la nature différente des systèmes de mobilité sous-jacents agissant simultanément. La migración de larga y corta distancia en Italia: el papel de las características económicas, sociales y ambientales Resumen En este trabajo se analizan los flujos migratorios interregionales de Italia. El método adoptado es la descomposición de los flujos de movilidad laboral en migración de corta y migración de larga distancia, y modelar los efectos de las variables económicas, las variables de capital social y de calidad de vida, y las variables de bienestar, con base en el comportamiento de la movilidad de los individuos. Estimamos estos tipos de flujos migratorios diferentes a través de un modelo binomial negativo, ampliado con instrumentos que permiten controlar los posibles problemas de endogeneidad. Nuestras conclusiones demuestran que la migración de larga distancia refleja un modelo desequilibrado de migración, mientras que la migración de corta distancia refleja en gran medida un modelo equilibrado de migración. Como tal, los intentos para modelar la migración interregional, en términos generales, serán tergiversados dado que los sistemas de movilidad subyacentes que funcionan simultáneamente son de naturaleza bastante diferente.

Using data collected among 742 respondents, this article aims at gaining greater insight into (i) the interaction between face-to-face (F2F) and electronic contacts, (ii) the influence of information content and relational distance on the communication mode/ service choice and (iii) the influence of relational and geographical distance, in addition to other factors, on the frequency of F2F and electronic contacts with relatives and friends. The results show that the frequency of F2F contacts is positively correlated with that for electronic communication, pointing at a complementarity effect.With respect to information content and relational distance, we find, on the basis of descriptive analyses, that synchronous modes/services (F2F and telephone conversations) are used more for urgent matters and that asynchronous modes (in particular email) become more influential as the relational distance increases. Finally, ordered probit analyses confirm that the frequency of both F2F and electronic communication declines when the physical and relational distance to social network members increases.

Travel-to-work areas (T.T.W.A.s) are used by the Department of Employment for the reporting of monthly local unemployment statistics. T.T.W.A.s are also used to demarcate those parts of Britain to benefit from the public expenditure on industry under regional policy. The 1984 revision of T.T.W.A. boundaries provided academics with a rare opportunity to help rationalize official statistical areas. This involved the specification of zone-design criteria and the implementation of these in a regionalization methodology. It was found that methods based on the model of local labour market areas yielded the most reasonable set of boundaries. The final methodology is detailed here, together with the actual parameter values used in the analysis that produced the new T.T.W.A.s. The paper ends by considering the implementation of the results, and evaluates the new areas against the old T.T.W.A.s.

Empirical research on urban shrinkage is being conducted around the globe, since many countries are confronted with the phenomenon of shrinking cities. So far, the research on urban shrinkage has focused strongly on case studies, which is why we can benefit from a diverse and empirically rich knowledge base on the phenomenon and its regional manifestations. By bridging and comparing the European and Japanese academic discourse, we aim to identify the different recurring theories and key issues discussed under the umbrella term ‘urban shrinkage’ and strive to uncover blind spots of the debate. For this purpose, we conduct a qualitative meta-analysis of 100 empirical cases that are documented in the literature dealing with shrinking cities in the EU and Japan. This meta-analysis is based on comparative qualitative content analysis. It reveals a regionally differentiated pattern of various causes, effects and responses documented for shrinking cities in Western, Mediterranean and post-socialist EU countries and in Japan. Based on these findings, we offer an agenda for future research by suggesting an integrative perspective on the context-specific dynamics of urban shrinkage. We argue for an integrative understanding of shrinking cities in order to develop a valid knowledge base for evidence-based policy recommendations.