Institute of History of Art and Musicology

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Dual-fuel pilot ignited natural gas engines have several intrinsic advantages relative to spark ignited; mainly higher thermal efficiency and lower conversion costs. The major drawback is associated with light loads. This paper discusses objectives, approaches, methods and results of the development of strategies which overcome the drawbacks and enhance the advantages. Development of a pilot fuel injection system, having a delivery of only 1 mm<sup>3</sup> at a duration of 0.6 ms, was described in a previous paper. This paper concentrates on the results of strategies to reduce unburned methane in the exhaust and to increase the substitution of gas at light loads through skip-fire, by-passing boost air and exhaust gas recirculation techniques. Engine tests proved that with these strategies, diesel fuel replacement of more than 95% over the entire engine operating map, including idle, can be achieved and current and anticipated future emission standards satisfied. The effect of each strategy on combustion and emission characteristics is experimentally studied, using a turbocharged, intercooled Navistar DT 466, 7.6L diesel engine. This concept, called micropilot compression ignited natural gas is proven to be a rational approach to the dedicated alternative fuel engine, and has potential for further improvements.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Natural gas is a low cost, abundant and clean burning fuel. Current internal combustion engines can be readily adapted to use natural gas fuel either in conjunction with conventional liquid fuels or as dedicated systems. Use of modern electronic controls allows consideration of new engine management strategies that are not practical or even possible with mechanical systems. The preferred approach is pre-mixed lean burn with cylinder-by-cylinder fuel injection and full time control of optimized air/fuel ratio and ignition.</div>

OBJECTIVES: Posttraumatic hypotension is believed to increase morbidity and mortality in traumatically brain-injured patients. Using a clinically relevant model of combined traumatic brain injury with superimposed hemorrhagic hypotension in rats, the present study evaluated whether a reduction in mean arterial blood pressure aggravates regional brain edema formation, regional cell death, and neurologic motor/cognitive deficits associated with traumatic brain injury. DESIGN: Experimental prospective, randomized study in rodents. SETTING: Experimental laboratory at a university hospital. SUBJECTS: One hundred nineteen male Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 350-385 g. INTERVENTIONS: Experimental traumatic brain injury of mild to moderate severity was induced using the lateral fluid percussion brain injury model in anesthetized rats (n = 89). Following traumatic brain injury, in surviving animals one group of animals was subjected to pressure-controlled hemorrhagic hypotension, maintaining the mean arterial blood pressure at 50-60 mm Hg for 30 mins (n = 47). The animals were subsequently either resuscitated with lactated Ringer's solution (three times shed blood volume, n = 18) or left uncompensated (n = 29). Other groups of animals included those with isolated traumatic brain injury (n = 34), those with isolated hemorrhagic hypotension (n = 8), and sham-injured control animals receiving anesthesia and surgery alone (n = 22). MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The withdrawal of 6-7 mL of arterial blood significantly reduced mean arterial blood pressure by 50% without decreasing arterial oxygen saturation or Pao2. Brain injury induced significant cerebral edema (p < .001) in vulnerable brain regions and cortical tissue loss (p < .01) compared with sham-injured animals. Neither regional brain edema formation at 24 hrs postinjury nor the extent of cortical tissue loss assessed at 7 days postinjury was significantly aggravated by superimposed hemorrhagic hypotension. Brain injury-induced neurologic deficits persisted up to 20 wks after injury and were also not aggravated by the hemorrhagic hypotension. Cognitive dysfunction persisted for up to 16 wks postinjury. The superimposition of hemorrhagic hypotension significantly delayed the time course of cognitive recovery. CONCLUSIONS: A single, acute hypotensive event lasting 30 mins did not aggravate the short- and long-term structural and motor deficits but delayed the speed of recovery of cognitive function associated with experimental traumatic brain injury.

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The paper discusses objectives, approaches and results of the development of a pilot fuel injection system (FIS) for a dedicated, compression ignition, high-speed, heavy duty natural gas/diesel engine. The performance of the pilot FIS is crucial for the success of a dual fuel concept. The Servojet electro-hydraulic, accumulator type fuel system was chosen for the pilot fuel injection. An alternative pilot FIS based on the “water hammer” (WH) effect was also considered. The modifications to a stock 17 min injector is described. Three different types of pilot injector nozzle were investigated: standard Valve Covered Orifice (VCO), modified minisac and new designed, unthrottled pintle. Preliminary results from engine tests proved that the optimum pilot fuel quantity is the minimum quantity. Based on that finding, the pilot FIS design was further optimized. Finally, a minimum pilot fuel delivery of 1 mmˆ3 and injection duration of 0.6 ms were achieved during bench testing, with other satisfactory injection characteristics. Although most of the objectives of pilot FIS development were met, it was concluded that significant potentials for further improvement exist.&lt;/div&gt;

The interfacial proton transfer (PT) reaction on the metal oxide surface is an important step in many chemical processes including photoelectrocatalytic water splitting, dehydrogenation, and hydrogen storage. The investigation of the PT process, in terms of thermodynamics and kinetics, has received considerable attention, but the individual free energy barriers and solvent effects for different PT pathways on rutile oxide are still lacking. Here, by applying a combination of ab initio and deep potential molecular dynamics methods, we have studied interfacial PT mechanisms by selecting the rutile SnO2(110)/H2O interface as an example of an oxide with the characteristic of frequently interfacial PT processes. Three types of PT pathways among the interfacial groups are found, i.e., proton transfer from terminal adsorbed water to bridge oxygen directly (surface-PT) or via a solvent water (mediated-PT), and proton hopping between two terminal groups (adlayer PT). Our simulations reveal that the terminal water in mediated-PT prefers to point toward the solution and forms a shorter H-bond with the assisted solvent water, leading to the lowest energy barrier and the fastest relative PT rate. In particular, it is found that the full solvation environment plays a crucial role in water-mediated proton conduction, while having little effect on direct PT reactions. The PT mechanisms on aqueous rutile oxide interfaces are also discussed by comparing an oxide series composed of SnO2, TiO2, and IrO2. Consequently, this work provides valuable insights into the ability of a deep neural network to reproduce the ab initio potential energy surface, as well as the PT mechanisms at such oxide/liquid interfaces, which can help understand the important chemical processes in electrochemistry, photoelectrocatalysis, colloid science, and geochemistry.

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The present study extends our previous methane flame chemistry to methane autoignition based on most recent shock-tube experiments. It results in a detailed mechanism that consists of 128 elementary reactions among 31 species and that can be applied to predicting methane autoinginition times for temperatures between 1000 K and 2000 K, pressures between 1 bar and 250 bar and equivalence ratios between 0.4 and 3. A 9-step short mechanism is derived from this detailed mechanism with the objective of predicting knock in dual-fuel engines for equivalence ratio between 0.5 and 1.5 with temperature ranging 800 to 1200 K and pressure from 50 to 150 bar. To further simplify the computation, a systematically reduced chemistry, which retains essential features of the 9-step mechanism, is developed and consists of the following six steps:&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt; &lt;div id="FD1" class="formula"&gt; &lt;div class="graphic-wrapper"&gt;&lt;img class="article-image equation block" src="2000-01-0957_fig0001.jpg" alt="No Caption Available"/&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt; &lt;div id="FD2" class="formula"&gt; &lt;div class="graphic-wrapper"&gt;&lt;img class="article-image equation block" src="2000-01-0957_fig0002.jpg" alt="No Caption Available"/&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt; &lt;div id="FD3" class="formula"&gt; &lt;div class="graphic-wrapper"&gt;&lt;img class="article-image equation block" src="2000-01-0957_fig0003.jpg" alt="No Caption Available"/&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt; &lt;div id="FD4" class="formula"&gt; &lt;div class="graphic-wrapper"&gt;&lt;img class="article-image equation block" src="2000-01-0957_fig0004.jpg" alt="No Caption Available"/&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt; &lt;div id="FD5" class="formula"&gt; &lt;div class="graphic-wrapper"&gt;&lt;img class="article-image equation block" src="2000-01-0957_fig0005.jpg" alt="No Caption Available"/&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt; &lt;div id="FD6" class="formula"&gt; &lt;div class="graphic-wrapper"&gt;&lt;img class="article-image equation block" src="2000-01-0957_fig0006.jpg" alt="No Caption Available"/&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Results of experiments and numerical computations demonstrate that the dominant factors influencing knock occurrence for specified compression ratio and equivalence ratios are &lt;i&gt;θ&lt;sub&gt;ƒs&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/i&gt;, the crank angle at which the premixed flame starts to propagate, and &lt;i&gt;T&lt;sub&gt;ic&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/i&gt;, the temperature of the fuel-air mixture when the intake valve is just closed. Good agreement is found between numerical predictions and experimental results for one particular engine. The present results can facilitate practical attempts at increasing knock resistance in dual-fuel engines.&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;An electronic fuel injection system for diesel engines has been adapted for dual fuel applications. The simplified and commercially practical system capitalizes on using standardized hardware and software modified for the dual fuel conversion kit Using the conventional diesel pump for pilot injection, electronic injectors provide timed pulses of gas for each cylinder.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The system has been successfully applied to both naturally aspirated and turbocharged versions of the Mercedes OM-352 diesel engine and has been placed in service in transit bus applications. Performance data shows over 90% displacement of diesel fuel with the same power and fuel economy as the base diesel engine. Initial reports from the field indicate excellent performance and drivability as well as smoke-free exhaust when in the dual fuel mode.&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Additional data has been analyzed on the effect of engine size on thermal efficiency. The comparison has been expanded to show the trends separately for engines developed by several different manufacturers. The data confirm the conclusion that engines below 2.0 liters per cylinder seem to deteriorate in fuel economy faster than would have been predicted from the behavior of larger engines. It is postulated that such deterioration results from a combination of less than optimum fuel spray, wall wetting, and perhaps a greater heat transfer loss than was anticipated. The paper focuses on engines in the size range under two liters per cylinder and addresses some of the problems to be resolved. Means for generating and controlling fuel spray and injection rate shape are presented along with experimental data on fuel sprays and engine combustion. The conclusion is that combustion of medium and small size engines can be substantially improved by avoiding wall wetting yet maintaining fast burn rate through high pressure, short duration fuel injection. Front end injection rate shaping can eliminate the adverse effects of ignition delay.&lt;/div&gt;

Computational electrochemistry is hardanybody who has ever tried will know. We argue that the reasons for its complexity lie not only in the multiscale nature of electrochemical processes but also in the rapid, ongoing method development in the field. This has resulted in a lack of clear guidelines and many open discussions in the community. These issues were also the topic of a recent Lorentz Center workshop, the key take-away messages of which are highlighted in this Perspective. In particular, we discuss why the choice between constant potential and constant charge simulations is less trivial than it may seem, why interpreting electrochemical reaction free energy diagrams can be challenging, why the Poisson-Nernst-Planck equation is not all there is, and why we desperately need more benchmarking in the field.

Several rabbit antisera have been prepared against reduced and alkylated, electrophoretically purified tubulin isolated from chick brain. These antisera give a single precipitin line in Ouchterlony double diffusion plates when tested against partially purified tubulin, and label specifically microtubule- and tubulin-containing structures, such as mitotic spindles, cilia, and vinblastine-induced crystals, in a variety of cells. The same antisera also display the unique ability to stimulate the colchicine-binding activity of tubulin preparations from chick brain and Chinese hamster ovary tissue culture cells. This specific stimulation of colchicine binding activity is also obtained with the gamma globulin fractions purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation of these antisera.

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;A new method for direct cylinder injection for two-stroke cycle engines is described. The technique utilizes simple hole type nozzles, accumulator injectors, medium pressure (100 bar), pressure metering, and full electronic controls. The objectives of the system are to accomplish, in a single injection, the four essentials of effective fuel injection (a) metered quantity of fuel, (b) desired spatial distribution, (c) timing of injection, (d) complete vaporization prior to the start of combustion.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Special techniques such as “cloud-stratified charge” and “skip-fire” are discussed as well as the special design features of the components and control systems. Data presented include details of spray formation and engine performance with dramatic reduction in fuel consumption and exhaust emissions.&lt;/div&gt;

The growth of human leukemic cells in culture and in vivo is dependent upon the presence of hematopoietic growth factors. Most populations of human leukemic acute myeloblastic leukemia (AML) cells express c-Kit on their surface and respond to Kit ligand (KL) in culture. To determine if this interaction was of potential significance in vivo we used a mouse model system. 32D cells, a murine IL-3-dependent myeloid cell line, were rendered KL responsive by transfection of the murine c-Kit. After injection of 32D or 32D-Kit cells into syngeneic hosts, animals bearing 32D-Kit cells, but not 32D cells, became moribund and were killed. These animals had circulating leukemic blast cells, infiltration of bone marrow, spleen, brain, liver, lung, and kidney. Cells recovered from some of the animals continued to be dependent upon IL-3 or KL for growth while in other cases the cells were factor independent. This model illustrates that the constitutive expression of c-Kit enhances the leukemic potential of 32D cells. The model will be useful for studying the progression of leukemia in vivo and testing whether interruption of the interaction of Kit and KL can affect the growth of leukemic cells.

BACKGROUND: Death after injury with low energy has gained increasing focus lately, and seems to constitute a significant amount of trauma-related death. The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiology of deaths from low-energy trauma in a rural Norwegian cohort. METHODS: All deaths from external causes in Finnmark County, Norway, from 1995 to 2004 were identified retrospectively through the Norwegian Cause of Death Registry. Deaths caused by hanging, drowning, suffocation, poisoning, and electrocution were excluded. Trauma was categorised as high energy or low energy based on mechanism of injury. All low-energy trauma deaths were then reviewed. RESULTS: There were 262 cases of trauma death during the period. Low-energy trauma counted for 43% of the trauma deaths, with an annual crude death rate of 13 per 100,000 inhabitants. Low falls accounted for 99% of the injuries. Fractures were sustained in 89% of cases and head injuries in 11%. Ninety per cent of patients had pre-existing medical conditions, and the median age was 82 years. Death was caused by a medical condition in 85% of cases. Fifty-two per cent of the patients died after discharge from the hospital. CONCLUSION: In this cohort, low-energy trauma was a significant contributor to trauma related death, especially among elderly and patients with pre-existing medical conditions.

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Increasing emphasis on natural gas as a clean, economical, and abundant fuel, encourages the search for the optimum approach to management of fuel, air and combustion to achieve the best results in power, fuel economy and low exhaust emissions. Electronic injection of fuel directly into the throttle body, intake ports or directly into the cylinder offers important advantages over carburetion or mixing valves. This is particularly true in the case of installations in which the gas supply is available at several atmospheres pressure above maximum intake manifold pressure. The use of choked-flow pulse- width-modulated electronic injectors offers precision control over the engine operating range with a wide variety of options for both stoichiometric and lean bum applications. A complete system utilizing commercially available components together with the application, calibration and engine mapping techniques is described. It is projected that ultimately electronic fuel injection will replace carburetors and mixing valves in the same manner as occurred for gasoline fueled engines and for the same reasons. The application to the twin fuel and dual fuel installations is also discussed, along with a perspective of the potential for future improvements.&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Hydraulically intensified medium pressure common rail (MPCR) electronic fuel injection systems are an attractive concept for heavy-duty diesel engine applications. They offer excellent packaging flexibility and thorough engine management system integration.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Two different concepts were evaluated in this study. They are different in how the pressure generation and injection events are related. One used a &lt;i&gt;direct principle&lt;/i&gt;, where the high-pressure generation and injection events occur simultaneously producing a near &lt;i&gt;square&lt;/i&gt; injection rate profile. Another concept was based on an &lt;i&gt;indirect principle&lt;/i&gt;, where potential energy (pressure) is first stored inside a hydraulic accumulator, and then released during injection, as a subsequent event. A &lt;i&gt;falling&lt;/i&gt; rate shape is typically produced in this case. A unit pump, where the hydraulic intensifier is separated from the injector by a high-pressure line, and a unit injector design are considered for both concepts.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Details of the injection process, including hydraulic and mechanical characteristics, were analyzed and compared. A one dimensional fuel injection simulation program was used. A summary of the mathematical model and program structure is provided and the advantages and disadvantages are outlined.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Due to the different rate shapes, the two Fuel Injection System (FIS) concepts result in different calculated combustion and emission characteristics. A CFD model for three-dimensional analysis of chemically reactive flow with sprays, KIVA, was used to assess the combustion and emission characteristics of the different systems used in the study.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The effect of a short injection duration on combustion and emissions was also explored. The calculated results showed an increase in the duration of heat release and soot emissions in this case. This may be attributed to the local fuel rich zones created.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Each FIS concept was composed of identical major components including a hydraulic control valve, hydraulic intensifier, check valves, and nozzle. Starting from a 'generic' design, a fair comparison was possible.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;This paper discusses the approaches, methods, and results of the evaluation study. The final objective of the project is to design and build a prototype FIS and demonstrate its capability in a single cylinder research engine.&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Research on the Catalytic Plasma Torch (CPT) ignition system was conducted this last year at BKM, Inc. in San Diego. The results showed that under certain conditions CPT can not only time ignition properly, but also extend the lean stability limit. This concept is based upon compression ignition of the charge in the CPT's integral pre-chamber. Compression ignition is induced by timed catalytic reduction of the pre-chamber's activation energy. This produces almost instantaneous combustion in the pre-chamber and is divided into multiple high velocity torches to rapidly ignite the main chamber charge. The timing of the ignition event is based on the location of the heated catalyst in the pre-chamber and the mass of the charge inducted into the cylinder. The base timing curve can be modified via current control which effects the catalyst activity. Dynamic modification of the timing event is accomplished by using the catalyst as an in-cylinder hot wire anemometer. In this mode, the activity of the catalyst, and thus the timing, is inversely proportional to the mass of the charge. This system works with multiple fuels in any homogeneous charge engine and differs from hot surface ignition in that it is not timed via fuel injection. This device replaces conventional ignition components such as the distributor, breaker system, high-tension wires and spark plugs. In addition, this system contains no moving parts or sophisticated electronic controls and can run under load without external energy and is entirely water proof.&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Direct injection has been considered the most effective approach to overcome the inherent short-circuiting of fuel in a two-stroke engine. A practical application of this technology on an 1100cc personal watercraft (PWC) engine is described. The experimental results show a drastic improvement in the engine emissions and fuel economy while maintaining good output performance and drive-ability of the PWC tested. The all-electronic, direct fuel injection engine has demonstrated a 76.3% reduction in hydrocarbon (HC) emissions and 43.03 g/kW-h HC plus oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions. This HC + NOx level meets the emission standards applicable to the 2006 model year set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for new gasoline spark-ignition marine engines.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Finally some considerations on extending the technology to include combustion control in the areas of both air and spark management, are recommended.&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The effect of high pressure injection (using an accumulator type unit injector with peak injection pressure of approximately 20,000 psi, having a decreasing injection rate profile) on combustion was studied. Combustion results were obtained using a DDA Series 3–53 diesel engine with both conventional analysis techniques and high speed photography. Diesel No. 2 fuel and a low viscosity - high volatility fuel, similar to gasoline were used in the study. Results were compared against baseline data obtained with standard injectors. Some of the characteristics of high pressure injection used with Diesel No. 2 fuel include: substantially improved ignition, shorter ignition delay, and higher pressure rise. Under heavy load - high speed conditions, greater smokemeter readings were achieved with the high pressure injection system with Diesel No. 2 fuel. Higher flame speeds and hence, greater resistance to knock were observed with the high volatility low cetane fuel. Results indicate that while high pressure injection improves ignition quality, proper matching of injection pressure profile, nozzle orifice design and air swirl are important to reduce undesirable pressure rise and smoke.&lt;/div&gt;

Dynamic effects of catalysts play a crucial role in catalytic reactions, necessitating the incorporation of statistical sampling and understanding of the impact of dynamic structures in free energy calculations. However, the complexity of catalytic systems poses challenges in effectively exploring the vast configurational space effectively. In this work, we propose CatFlow, an automated workflow for training machine learning potentials (MLPs) to compute free energies of catalytic reactions. CatFlow combines constrained molecular dynamics (MD) simulation with concurrent training of MLPs and sequential calculation of free energies with well trained MLPs. By rapidly generating reliable MLPs, CatFlow facilitates rigorous free energy calculations, enabling the determination of the reaction profiles in an end-to-end manner. We showcased the capabilities of CatFlow by investigating the activation of O2 catalyzed by Pt clusters and demonstrated the effects of phase transition on the activities of the catalytic reaction. CatFlow offers an efficient and automated solution for studying the catalytic elementary reaction processes. It reduces the need for human intervention and provides researchers with a powerful tool to investigate free energies of dynamic catalysis.

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The benefits of direct cylinder fuel injection to the fuel economy and exhaust emissions of small spark ignited two-stroke engines is well known. The selection of a commercially viable fuel injection solution continues to receive evaluation and scrutiny by the engine manufacturers.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;This paper describes the development and demonstration of an EDFI solution which is applicable to low cost and high production volume engines in several industries. The system is based on the “accumulator” fuel injection operating principle, which involves pressurizing fuel within an injection nozzle and subsequently releasing the pressurized fuel into the combustion chamber on command. This concept provides very short injection duration throughout the dynamic operating range of the engine as well as high injection frequency capability. The addition of full authority electronic control to the direct fuel injection system provides control flexibility and the opportunity for speed and load dependent calibration of the fuel injection event. The combination of unique components, control schemes and combustion systems has resulted in a flexible EDFI solution which is applicable to low cost two-stroke engines. Components include a single plunger pressurizing pump, an accumulator fuel injector and a precise, magnetically latching 2-way solenoid valve. The control scheme involves both fuel quantity and timing control by means of solenoid valve timing strategy. Skip-injection strategy for improved part load or idle combustion efficiency is optional. Combustion systems which have been evaluated include hollow cone spray, conventional and piston bowl combustion chambers and spray impingement techniques.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;This paper describes the EDFI hardware design and operation, the application of system simulation software for design iteration, specific application designs and test results. The design applications include a 46cc handheld utility engine and a 50cc 2-wheeler engine. The 46cc utility engine results include comparisons of power, fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. Emissions results include: &lt;ol class="list nostyle"&gt; &lt;li class="list-item"&gt; &lt;span class="li-label"&gt;1&lt;/span&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Data at maximum power and idle&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/li&gt; &lt;li class="list-item"&gt; &lt;span class="li-label"&gt;2&lt;/span&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Comparison to the California Air Resources Board (CARB) for the year 2000&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/li&gt; &lt;li class="list-item"&gt; &lt;span class="li-label"&gt;3&lt;/span&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) marine engine regulations for 2006&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/li&gt; &lt;/ol&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The 50cc 2-wheeler data includes comparisons of power and fuel consumption to a standard (carbureted) engine. Data is compared at Wide Open Throttle (WOT) and part load conditions. In addition to achieving desired fuel consumption and hydrocarbon emission reductions, test results included power increase, particularly in the range from peak torque speed to rated power speed. It is concluded that the two-stroke spark ignited engine has the potential to continue a dominant role in low cost, high power density applications while meeting regulated exhaust emission standards.&lt;/div&gt;