Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies

Mary D. Salter Ainsworth, Silvia M. Bell, Attachment, Exploration, and Separation: Illustrated by the Behavior of One-Year-Olds in a Strange Situation, Child Development, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Mar., 1970), pp. 49-67

The concept of empathy—the intellectual or imaginative apprehension of another's condition or state of mind— is central for understanding a broad range of social phenomena including, in particular, moral development. Within this latter context, an empathic disposition can be regarded as capacity to adopt a broad moral perspective, that is, to take the moral point of view. This paper discusses development of a 64-item self-report measure of empathy, constructed by comparing responses of groups with high- and low-rated empathy, using combined MMPI-CPI item pool. After providing evidence concerning scale's reliability and validity, an attempt is made to show its relevance for specifically moral conduct by relating empathy scale scores to real life indexes of socially appropriate behavior and to certain previously wellvalidated measures of personality. Some form of empathic disposition, roletaking ability, or social sensitivity is assumed by all approaches to personality which take interpersonal situation as a major focus of concern. Accordingly, most writers in role-theoretical tradition (Cottrell, 1942; Gough, 1948; Mead, 1934; Sarbin, 1968) have given careful attention to this aspect of social functioning. Mead, for example, has argued that role-taking ability is key variable in social and moral development; extending this line of reasoning he equates g factor in intelligence with social sensitivity, origins of which can be found in central nervous system. In a similar vein, Cottrell and Dymond (1949) also maintained that empathy is basic process in all social interaction. Empathy, seen as an everyday manifestation of disposition to adopt a broad moral

3 theoretical approaches to the origin and development of the infant-mother relationship are reviewed: psychoanalytic theories of object relations, social learning theories of dependency (and attachment), and an ethologically oriented theory of attachment. "Object relations, " "dependency, " and "attachment, " although overlapping, are seen to differ substantially. Among the concepts in regard to which there are significant intertheoretical differences, the following are discussed: genetic "biases, " reinforcement as compared with activation and termination of behavioral systems and with feedback, strength o f attachment behavior versus strength of attachment, inner representation of the object, intra-organismic and environmental conditions of behavioral activation, and the role of intra-organismic organization and structure. Finally, the relation between theory and research methods is considered. Three terms have been commonly used to characterize the infant's relationship with his mother: "object relations, " "dependency, " and "attachment. " Although they overlap somewhat in their connotations, these terms are not synonymous. Each is more or less closely tied to a distinctive theoretical formulation of the origin and development of

This article summarizes results of 7S studies that reported accuracy for males and females at decoding nonverbal communication. The following attributes of the studies were coded: year, sample size, age of judges, sex of stimulus person(s), age of stimulus person(s), and the medium and channel of communication (e.g., photos of facial expressions, filtered speech). These attributes were examined in relation to three outcome indices: direction of effect, effect size (in SD units), and significance level. Results showed that more studies showed female advantage than would occur by chance, the average effect was of moderate magnitude and was significantly larger than zero, and more studies reached a conventional level of significance than would be expected by chance. The gender effect for visual-plus-auditory studies was significantly larger than for visual-only and auditory-only studies. The magnitude of the gender effect did not vary reliably with sample size, age of judges, sex of stimulus person(s), or age of stimulus person(s). The study of people's ability to judge the meanings of nonverbal cues of emotion has a long history in social psychology, dating to the second decade of this century. The first question asked was whether people could recognize nonverbally expressed emotions at all, and this was followed by the search for correlates of judging ability. Gender was one of the first attributes of judges to be examined in relation to judging ability. Gender has not always been an important variable in psychological research. In the study of nonverbal communication, however, gender was considered important from the start, because of the predictions that could be made based on gender role stereotypes and folk beliefs about woman's intuition. Researchers of nonverbal communication have clearly felt that the comparison of males' and females' performances is theoretically

The higher divorce rate for remarriages after divorce than for first marriages, it is argued, is due to the incomplete institutionalization of remarriage after divorce in the United States. Persons who are remarried after a divorce and have children from previous marriages face problems unlike those encountered in first marriages. The institution of the family provides no standard solutions to many of these problems, with the result that the unity of families of remarriages after divorce often becomes precarious. The incomplete institutionalization of ramarriage shows us, by way of contrast, that family unity in first marriages is still supported by effective institutional controls, despite claims that the institutional nature of family life has eroded in the 20th century. Some suggestions for future research on remarriage and on the institutionalization of married life are presented.

The claim that a person's memory for an event may be altered by information encountered after the event has been influential in shaping current conceptions of memory. The basis for the claim is a series of studies showing that subjects who are given false or misleading information about a previously witnessed event perform more poorly on tests of memory for the event than subjects who are not misled. In this article we argue that the available evidence does not imply that misleading postevent information impairs memory for the original event, because the procedure used in previous studies is inappropriate for assessing effects of misleading information on memory. We then introduce a more appropriate procedure and report six experiments using this procedure. We conclude from the results that misleading postevent information has no effect on memory for the original event. We then review several recent studies that seem to contradict this conclusion, showing that the studies do not pose problems for our position. Finally, we discuss the implications of our conclusions for broader issues concerning memory.

Using ratings of the seriousness of a set of 140 crimes obtained from a household sample taken in Baltimore in 1972, the study explores certain collective characteristics of these ratings. Respondents largely agree on the relative ordering of crimes. Very few descriptive characteristics of the crimes account for much of the variation from crime to crime in the average ratings received. The more highly educated and the younger the respondents, the more likely were their ratings to agree with average ratings computed over the entire sample. These findings indicate that norms concerning crime seriousness are widely diffused throughout subgroups of our society.

Nearly one billion people worldwide live in rural areas without access to national paved road networks. We estimate the impacts of India’s $40 billion national rural road construction program using a fuzzy regression discontinuity design and comprehensive household and firm census microdata. Four years after road construction, the main effect of new feeder roads is to facilitate the movement of workers out of agriculture. However, there are no major changes in agricultural outcomes, income, or assets. Employment in village firms expands only slightly. Even with better market connections, remote areas may continue to lack economic opportunities. (JEL J43, O13, O18, R23, R42)

Controlling for variables implies conceptual distinctness between the control and zero-order variables. However, there are different levels of distinctness, some more subtle than others. These levels are determined by the theoretical context of the research. Failure to specify the theoretical context creates ambiguity as to the level of distinctness, and leads to the partialling fallacy, in which one controls for variables that are distinct in terms of appropriate theory. Although this can occur in using any control procedure, it is especially likely to occur in multiple regression, where high-order partial regression coefficients are routinely obtained in order to determine the relative importance of variables. Four major ways in which these regression coefficients can be seriously misleading are discussed. Although warnings concerning multicollinearity are to be found in statistics texts, they are insufficiently informative to prevent the mistakes described here. This is because the problem is essentially one of substantive interpretation rather than one of mathematical statistics per se.

Theories of visual pattern recognition frequently assume that processing begins with an analysis of the pattern into component parts, which are often assumed to be line segments of particular orientations, lengths, positions, and curvatures. The present experiments measured discriminability of these simple parts when presented either in isolation or within configural contexts that provided no formal information useful for the discrimination. Certain contexts either impaired or did not affect performance. Other contexts were found, however, which dramatically improved discriminability. Thus, two patterns which differed only in a single part could be discriminated from each other more quickly than could their distinguishing parts shown in isolation. Further experiments suggest that this "configural superiority" effect influences perceptual components of processing rather than memorial components. The mechanism underlying configural superiority appears to be the detection of novel and distinguishing features, such as corners and intersections, which emerge when parts are placed in close proximity to each other. The outlines of a model for preattentive feature discrimination are presented.

As a means of better understanding the evolution of optically selected galaxies we consider the distribution of galaxies within the multicolor space $U$, $B_J$, $R_F$ and $I_N$. We find that they form an almost planar distribution out to $B_J =22.5$ and $z<0.3$. The position of a galaxy within this plane is dependent on its redshift, luminosity and spectral type. While in the original $U$, $B_J$, $R_F$ and $I_N$ space these properties are highly correlated we can define an optimal rotation of the photometric axes that makes much of this information orthogonal. Fitting the observed spectroscopic redshifts with a quadratic function of the four magnitudes we show that redshifts for galaxies can be estimated to an accuracy better than $\Delta z =0.05$. This dispersion is due to the photometric uncertainties within the photographic data. Assuming no galaxy evolution we derive a set of simulated galaxy fluxes in the U, J, F and N passbands. Using these data we investigate how the redshift is encoded within the broadband magnitudes and the intrinsic dispersion of the photometric-redshift relation. We find that the signal that defines a galaxy's photometric redshift is not related to specific absorption or emission lines but comes from the break in the overall shape of the galaxy continuum at around 4000 \AA. Using high signal-to-noise photometric data we estimate that it is possible to achieve an intrinsic dispersion of less than $\Delta z =0.02$.

Complementing Europe’s bank-based system with deeper capital markets and more cross-border financial integration promises benefits, but despite long-running debate and policy action, financial system change remains slow. Fintech has the potential to change financial intermediation structures substantially. It could disrupt existing intermediation with new business models empowered by intelligent algorithms, big data, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence. Lower costs and potentially better consumer experiences could be the driving forces. Yet, empirically, fintech remains very small, especially in the European Union (EU). Even the largest fintech market, in China, is of marginal size compared to overall financial intermediation. In the EU, much of fintech is concentrated in the UK. We argue that policymakers need to consider four questions urgently. (i) Develop a European or national fintech market? (ii) What regulatory framework to pursue? (iii) Should supervision of fintech be exercised at the European level? (iv) What is the overall vision for the EU’s financial system? Getting the answers to these questions right at an early stage of market development constitutes an opportunity to shape a stable and cost-efficient financial system. In contrast, late action could mean that Europe loses out to foreign competitors and misses an opportunity to improve financial intermediation in Europe.

Recent developments in semantic theory, such as the work of Labov (1973) and Lakoff (1973), have brought into question the assumption that meanings are precise. It has been proposed that the meanings of all terms are to a lesser or greater degree vague, such that, the boundary of the application of a term is never a point but a region where the term gradually moves from being applicable to nonapplicable. Developments in fuzzy set theory have made it possible to offer a formal treat-ment of vagueness of natural language concepts. In this article, the proposition that natural language concepts are represented as fuzzy sets of meaning compo-nents and that language operators—adverbs, negative markers, and adjectives— can be considered as operators on fuzzy sets was assessed empirically. In a series of experiments, we explored the application of fuzzy set theory to the meaning of phrases such as very small, sort of large, and so on. In Experiment 1, subjects judged the applicability of the set of phrases to a set of squares of varying size. The results indicated that the group interpretation

This paper deals with two specific issues: the explanation of moral conduct and the structure of moral character.The purpose of the paper is to describe a new psychological perspective on moral conduct, and to discuss some empirical findings which follow from this perspective.Morality is regarded here as a natural phenomenon which considers understanding of moral behavior to be dependent on knowledge of man's biological and psychological nature.The irrplied assumption is that an evaluative tendency is an integral part of social conduct and, moreover, that moral conduct is social conduct.Definitions are provided for irorality, moral behavior, and moral character.Five important aspects of character development that are pertinent to the explanation of moral behavior are: moral kncwledge, socialization, empathy, the ethics of conscience vs. the ethics ot responsibility, and autonomy.Each of these dimensions is defined in terms of a specific assessment device, and the relationships among the scales are examined.

Donelda J. Stayton, Robert Hogan, Mary D. Salter Ainsworth, Infant Obedience and Maternal Behavior: The Origins of Socialization Reconsidered, Child Development, Vol. 42, No. 4 (Oct., 1971), pp. 1057-1069

This study examines mediation as an exercise in which the mediator has interests and operates in a context of power politics and cost‐benefit calculation. It is based on eight cases of international mediation‐the U.S.S.R. between India and Pakistan (1966), Algeria between Iran and Iraq (1975), the United States and Great Britain in Rhodesia (1975–1979), the five Western States in Namibia (1977–1983), Algeria between the United States and Iran (1980–1981), and the ongoing activities of the Organization of African Unity, The Organization of American States, and the International Committee of the Red Cross. It was found that a mediator intervenes because of its interest in the conflict or in obtaining an outcome, and it can play three roles‐communicator, formulator, manipulator‐ in accomplishing its objectives. The mediator is accepted by the parties, not because of its neutrality but because of its ability to produce an attractive outcome. The mediator's power, or leverage, comes from the parties' need for a solution, from its ability to shift weight among parties, and from side payments.

Data from a nationally representative sample of 2, 143 adult men & women were used to explore the relationship between wives' dependency on marriage and wife abuse. While family violence researchers have posited such a relationship, it has not been empirically demonstrated. The independent variables were indexes of wives' objective (economic) and subjective (perceived) marital dependency. The dependent variables assessed the presence of acts of physical aggression toward wives that carried a high risk of serious injury (severe violence) and those that did not carry such a risk (minor violence). Both dimensions of dependency were positivelyv related to abuse. However, wives'subjective marital dependency was significantly related to minor, but not severe violence, and wives' objective marital dependencv tbllowed the opposite pattern. These results indicate that it is economic and not psychological dependency which keeps women in severely abusive marriages.

Piaget (1937) suggested that the development of the object concept does not proceed at the same rate with respect to all objects. The purpose of the present study was to explore the relation between the development of person and object permanence and the attachment of an infant to his mother. 3 hypotheses were tested. (a) Babies tend to be more advanced in the concept of persons than in the concept of inanimate objects as permanent, but there are important' individual diferences. (b) Differences in the rate of development of person permanence are related to the quality of attachment behavior that a baby exhibits toward his mother. (c) Differences in the rate of development of person permanence can affect, in turn, the development of object permanence. The hypotheses were confirmed.

Consistent with previous research, we fail to find a significant correlation between the abnormal returns of our sample firms with international activities and changes in the dollar. We investigate the possibility that this failure is due to mispricing. Lagged changes in the dollar are a significant variable in explaining current abnormal returns of our sample firms, suggesting that mispricing does occur. A simple trading strategy based upon these results generates significant abnormal returns. Corroborating evidence from returns around earnings announcements as well as errors in analysts' forecasts of earnings is also provided.

Recent investigations of lexical and syntactic aspects of language comprehension in aphasia are reviewed. It is argued that these studies support theoretical assumptions concerning the functional independence of various components of normal language processing. Studies of the structure of the lexicon in aphasia provide support for componential theories of lexical semantics in that different types of features of meaning can be selectively disrupted under conditions of brain damage. Studies of sentence comprehension support the existence of a syntactic mechanism that is independent of lexically based heuristic strategies for assigning meaning. There is evidence that these independent elements of language are subserved by different portions of the dominant hemisphere of the brain. Focal brain damage can thus cause selective disruption of components, allowing the separation of elements that are highly integrated in the normal adult. Studies of aphasic language, therefore, provide a valuable source of constraints on theories of normal language processing.