Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority

Kongsfjorden-Krossfjorden and the adjacent West Spitsbergen Shelf meet at the common mouth of the two fjord arms. This paper presents our most up-to-date information about the physical environment of this fjord system and identifies important gaps in knowledge. Particular attention is given to the steep physical gradients along the main fjord axis, as well as to seasonal environmental changes. Physical processes on different scales control the large-scale circulation and small-scale (irreversible) mixing of water and its constituents. It is shown that, in addition to the tide, run-off (glacier ablation, snowmelt, summer rainfall and ice calving) and local winds are the main driving forces acting on the upper water masses in the fjord system. The tide is dominated by the semi-diurnal component and the freshwater supply shows a marked seasonal variation pattern and also varies interannually. The wind conditions are characterized by prevailing katabatic winds, which at times are strengthened by the geostrophic wind field over Svalbard. Rotational dynamics have a considerable influence on the circulation patterns within the fjord system and give rise to a strong interaction between the fjord arms. Such dynamics are also the main reason why variations in the shelf water density field, caused by remote forces (tide and coastal winds), propagate as a Kelvin wave into the fjord system. This exchange affects mainly the intermediate and deep water, which is also affected by vertical convection processes driven by cooling of the surface and brine release during ice formation in the inner reaches of the fjord arms. Further aspects covered by this paper include the geological and geomorphological characteristics of the Kongsfjorden area, climate and meteorology, the influence of glaciers, freshwater supply, sea ice conditions, sedimentation processes as well as underwater radiation conditions. The fjord system is assumed to be vulnerable to possible climate changes, and thus is very suitable as a site for the demonstration and investigation of phenomena related to climate change.

FIGURE 11. Abyssianira dentifrons Menzies, 1956. Holotype adult male (AMNH 11762): A, pereopod I; B, C, two unnumbered pereopods; D, pleotelson; E, uropod; F, pleopod I. Scales = 0.1 mm (A), 0.2 mm (B, C, F), 0.5 mm (D), 0.05 mm (E).

Radioactive emissions into the atmosphere from the damaged reactors of the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant (NPP) started on March 12th, 2011. Among the various radionuclides released, iodine-131 ((131)I) and cesium isotopes ((137)Cs and (134)Cs) were transported across the Pacific toward the North American continent and reached Europe despite dispersion and washout along the route of the contaminated air masses. In Europe, the first signs of the releases were detected 7 days later while the first peak of activity level was observed between March 28th and March 30th. Time variations over a 20-day period and spatial variations across more than 150 sampling locations in Europe made it possible to characterize the contaminated air masses. After the Chernobyl accident, only a few measurements of the gaseous (131)I fraction were conducted compared to the number of measurements for the particulate fraction. Several studies had already pointed out the importance of the gaseous (131)I and the large underestimation of the total (131)I airborne activity level, and subsequent calculations of inhalation dose, if neglected. The measurements made across Europe following the releases from the Fukushima NPP reactors have provided a significant amount of new data on the ratio of the gaseous (131)I fraction to total (131)I, both on a spatial scale and its temporal variation. It can be pointed out that during the Fukushima event, the (134)Cs to (137)Cs ratio proved to be different from that observed after the Chernobyl accident. The data set provided in this paper is the most comprehensive survey of the main relevant airborne radionuclides from the Fukushima reactors, measured across Europe. A rough estimate of the total (131)I inventory that has passed over Europe during this period was <1% of the released amount. According to the measurements, airborne activity levels remain of no concern for public health in Europe.

Over one million European children undergo computed tomography (CT) scans annually. Although moderate- to high-dose ionizing radiation exposure is an established risk factor for hematological malignancies, risks at CT examination dose levels remain uncertain. Here we followed up a multinational cohort (EPI-CT) of 948,174 individuals who underwent CT examinations before age 22 years in nine European countries. Radiation doses to the active bone marrow were estimated on the basis of body part scanned, patient characteristics, time period and inferred CT technical parameters. We found an association between cumulative dose and risk of all hematological malignancies, with an excess relative risk of 1.96 (95% confidence interval 1.10 to 3.12) per 100 mGy (790 cases). Similar estimates were obtained for lymphoid and myeloid malignancies. Results suggest that for every 10,000 children examined today (mean dose 8 mGy), 1-2 persons are expected to develop a hematological malignancy attributable to radiation exposure in the subsequent 12 years. Our results strengthen the body of evidence of increased cancer risk at low radiation doses and highlight the need for continued justification of pediatric CT examinations and optimization of doses.

The current focus on networking and mutual assistance in the management of radiation accidents or incidents has demonstrated the importance of a joined-up approach in physical and biological dosimetry. To this end, the European Radiation Dosimetry Working Group 10 on 'Retrospective Dosimetry' has been set up by individuals from a wide range of disciplines across Europe. Here, established and emerging dosimetry methods are reviewed, which can be used immediately and retrospectively following external ionising radiation exposure. Endpoints and assays include dicentrics, translocations, premature chromosome condensation, micronuclei, somatic mutations, gene expression, electron paramagnetic resonance, thermoluminescence, optically stimulated luminescence, neutron activation, haematology, protein biomarkers and analytical dose reconstruction. Individual characteristics of these techniques, their limitations and potential for further development are reviewed, and their usefulness in specific exposure scenarios is discussed. Whilst no single technique fulfils the criteria of an ideal dosemeter, an integrated approach using multiple techniques tailored to the exposure scenario can cover most requirements.

Abstract. Time series of the deposition of acidifying substances are a pre-requisite for the study of the acidification and recovery of ecosystems such as surface waters. This paper reports the derivation and calculation of deposition trends of the potentially acidifying compounds SO2, NOx and NH3 in sensitive freshwater regions in Europe studied in the EU-funded RECOVER: 2010 project. The time interval covered is 151 years: from 1880, which can be considered as the pre-industrial era in most countries, to 2030, taking into account the consequences of current emission reduction agreements in Europe. The historic and predicted emissions for European countries are used to calculate the deposition development in the study areas, using meteorologically averaged atmospheric source-receptor transfer coefficients derived from the EMEP Lagrangian acid deposition model. These time series were used as driving forces for the application of the dynamic acidification model MAGIC to study the acidification and recovery of sensitive freshwater ecosystems in Europe. Keywords: acid deposition, historic depositions, sensitive lake regions, Europe

Abstract. European emission trends of nitrogen oxides since 1880 and up to present are presented here and are linked to the evolution of road transport emissions. Road transport has been the dominating source of NOx emissions since 1970, and contributes with 40% to the total emissions in 2005. Five trend regimes have been identified between 1880 and 2005. The first regime (1880–1950) is determined by a slow increase in fuel consumption all over Europe. The second regime (1950–1980) is characterized by a continued steep upward trend in liquid fuel use and by the introduction of the first regulations on road traffic emissions. Reduction in fuel consumption determines the emission trends in the third regime (1980–1990) that is also characterized by important differences between Eastern and Western Europe. Emissions from road traffic continue to grow in Western Europe in this period, and it is argued here that the reason for this continued NOx emission increase is related to early inefficient regulations for NOx in the transport sector. The fourth regime (1990–2000) involves a turning point for road traffic emissions, with a general decrease of emissions in Europe during that decade. It is in this period that we can identify the first emission reductions due to technological abatement in Western Europe. In the fifth regime (2000–2005), the economic recovery in Eastern Europe imposes increased emission from road traffic in this area. Western European emissions are on the other hand decoupled from the fuel consumption, and continue to decrease. The implementation of strict measures to control NOx emissions is demonstrated here to be a main reason for the continued Western European emission reductions. The results indicate that even though the effectiveness of European standards is hampered by a slow vehicle turnover, loopholes in the type-approval testing, and an increase in diesel consumption, the effect of such technical abatement measures is traceable in the evolution of European road traffic emissions over the last 15 years.

There is public concern that use of mobile phones could increase the risk of brain tumours. If such an effect exists, acoustic neuroma would be of particular concern because of the proximity of the acoustic nerve to the handset. We conducted, to a shared protocol, six population-based case-control studies in four Nordic countries and the UK to assess the risk of acoustic neuroma in relation to mobile phone use. Data were collected by personal interview from 678 cases of acoustic neuroma and 3553 controls. The risk of acoustic neuroma in relation to regular mobile phone use in the pooled data set was not raised (odds ratio (OR) = 0.9, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.7-1.1). There was no association of risk with duration of use, lifetime cumulative hours of use or number of calls, for phone use overall or for analogue or digital phones separately. Risk of a tumour on the same side of the head as reported phone use was raised for use for 10 years or longer (OR = 1.8, 95% CI: 1.1-3.1). The study suggests that there is no substantial risk of acoustic neuroma in the first decade after starting mobile phone use. However, an increase in risk after longer term use or after a longer lag period could not be ruled out.

BACKGROUND: The European EPI-CT study aims to quantify cancer risks from CT examinations of children and young adults. Here, we assess the risk of brain cancer. METHODS: We pooled data from nine European countries for this cohort study. Eligible participants had at least one CT examination before age 22 years documented between 1977 and 2014, had no previous diagnosis of cancer or benign brain tumour, and were alive and cancer-free at least 5 years after the first CT. Participants were identified through the Radiology Information System in 276 hospitals. Participants were linked with national or regional registries of cancer and vital status, and eligible cases were patients with brain cancers according to WHO International Classification of Diseases for Oncology. Gliomas were analysed separately to all brain cancers. Organ doses were reconstructed using historical machine settings and a large sample of CT images. Excess relative risks (ERRs) of brain cancer per 100 mGy of cumulative brain dose were calculated with linear dose-response modelling. The outcome was the first reported diagnosis of brain cancer after an exclusion period of 5 years after the first electronically recorded CT examination. FINDINGS: We identified 948 174 individuals, of whom 658 752 (69%) were eligible for our study. 368 721 (56%) of 658 752 participants were male and 290 031 (44%) were female. During a median follow-up of 5·6 years (IQR 2·4-10·1), 165 brain cancers occurred, including 121 (73%) gliomas. Mean cumulative brain dose, lagged by 5 years, was 47·4 mGy (SD 60·9) among all individuals and 76·0 mGy (100·1) among people with brain cancer. A significant linear dose-response relationship was observed for all brain cancers (ERR per 100 mGy 1·27 [95% CI 0·51-2·69]) and for gliomas separately (ERR per 100 mGy 1·11 [0·36-2·59]). Results were robust when the start of follow-up was delayed beyond 5 years and when participants with possibly previously unreported cancers were excluded. INTERPRETATION: The observed significant dose-response relationship between CT-related radiation exposure and brain cancer in this large, multicentre study with individual dose evaluation emphasises careful justification of paediatric CTs and use of doses as low as reasonably possible. FUNDING: EU FP7; Belgian Cancer Registry; La Ligue contre le Cancer, L'Institut National du Cancer, France; Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan; German Federal Ministry of Education and Research; Worldwide Cancer Research; Dutch Cancer Society; Research Council of Norway; Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear, Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain; US National Cancer Institute; UK National Institute for Health Research; Public Health England.

A new version of the ERICA Tool (version 1.2) was released in November 2014; this constitutes the first major update of the Tool since release in 2007. The key features of the update are presented in this article. Of particular note are new transfer databases extracted from an international compilation of concentration ratios (CRwo-media) and the modification of 'extrapolation' approaches used to select transfer data in cases where information is not available. Bayesian updating approaches have been used in some cases to draw on relevant information that would otherwise have been excluded in the process of deriving CRwo-media statistics. All of these efforts have in turn led to the requirement to update Environmental Media Concentration Limits (EMCLs) used in Tier 1 assessments. Some of the significant changes with regard to EMCLs are highlighted.

April 2016 sees the 30(th) anniversary of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. As a consequence of the accident populations were relocated in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine and remedial measures were put in place to reduce the entry of contaminants (primarily (134+137)Cs) into the human food chain in a number of countries throughout Europe. Remedial measures are still today in place in a number of countries, and areas of the former Soviet Union remain abandoned. The Chernobyl accident led to a large resurgence in radioecological studies both to aid remediation and to be able to make future predictions on the post-accident situation, but, also in recognition that more knowledge was required to cope with future accidents. In this paper we discuss, what in the authors' opinions, were the advances made in radioecology as a consequence of the Chernobyl accident. The areas we identified as being significantly advanced following Chernobyl were: the importance of semi-natural ecosystems in human dose formation; the characterisation and environmental behaviour of 'hot particles'; the development and application of countermeasures; the "fixation" and long term bioavailability of radiocaesium and; the effects of radiation on plants and animals.

Public concern has been expressed about the possible adverse health effects of mobile telephones, mainly related to intracranial tumors. We conducted a population-based case-control study to investigate the relationship between mobile phone use and risk of glioma among 1,522 glioma patients and 3,301 controls. We found no evidence of increased risk of glioma related to regular mobile phone use (odds ratio, OR = 0.78, 95% confidence interval, CI: 0.68, 0.91). No significant association was found across categories with duration of use, years since first use, cumulative number of calls or cumulative hours of use. When the linear trend was examined, the OR for cumulative hours of mobile phone use was 1.006 (1.002, 1.010) per 100 hr, but no such relationship was found for the years of use or the number of calls. We found no increased risks when analogue and digital phones were analyzed separately. For more than 10 years of mobile phone use reported on the side of the head where the tumor was located, an increased OR of borderline statistical significance (OR = 1.39, 95% CI 1.01, 1.92, p trend 0.04) was found, whereas similar use on the opposite side of the head resulted in an OR of 0.98 (95% CI 0.71, 1.37). Although our results overall do not indicate an increased risk of glioma in relation to mobile phone use, the possible risk in the most heavily exposed part of the brain with long-term use needs to be explored further before firm conclusions can be drawn.

In Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, the use of mobile phones increased sharply in the mid-1990s; thus, time trends in brain tumor incidence after 1998 may provide information about possible tumor risks associated with mobile phone use. We investigated time trends in the incidence of glioma and meningioma in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden from 1974 to 2003, using data from national cancer registries. We used joinpoint regression models to analyze the annual incidence rates of glioma and meningioma. During this period, 59 984 men and women aged 20–79 years were diagnosed with brain tumors in a population of 16 million adults. All statistical tests were two-sided. From 1974 to 2003, the incidence rate of glioma increased by 0.5% per year (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.2% to 0.8%) among men and by 0.2% per year (95% CI = −0.1% to 0.5%) among women and that of meningioma increased by 0.8% per year (95% CI = 0.4% to 1.3%) among men, and after the early 1990s, by 3.8% per year (95% CI = 3.2% to 4.4%) among women. No change in incidence trends were observed from 1998 to 2003, the time when possible associations between mobile phone use and cancer risk would be informative about an induction period of 5–10 years.

The aim of the nested case-control study reported here was to test the hypothesis that exposure to electromagnetic fields of the type generated by high-voltage power lines increases the incidence of cancer in children aged 0-14 years. The study population comprised children who during at least one of the years 1960, 1970, 1980, 1985, 1987, or 1989 had lived in a census ward crossed by a high-voltage power line. The cases were diagnosed from 1965 to 1989 and were matched to controls by year of birth, sex, and municipality. Exposure to electric and magnetic fields was calculated by means of computer programs in which power line characteristics and distance were taken into account. No association was found between exposure to time-weighted average exposure to magnetic fields and cancer at all sites, brain tumors, lymphoma, or leukemia. Cancer at other sites showed elevated odds ratios in the two highest exposure categories in some, but not all, measures of exposure. This study provides little support for an association between children's exposure to magnetic fields and cancer and no support for an association between leukemia and such exposure, but no firm conclusions can be drawn owing to the small numbers involved.

AIM: To validate short term recall of mobile phone use within Interphone, an international collaborative case control study of tumours of the brain, acoustic nerve, and salivary glands related to mobile telephone use. METHODS: Mobile phone use of 672 volunteers in 11 countries was recorded by operators or through the use of software modified phones, and compared to use recalled six months later using the Interphone study questionnaire. Agreement between recalled and actual phone use was analysed using both categorical and continuous measures of number and duration of phone calls. RESULTS: Correlations between recalled and actual phone use were moderate to high (ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 across countries) and of the same order for number and duration of calls. The kappa statistic demonstrated fair to moderate agreement for both number and duration of calls (weighted kappa ranging from 0.20 to 0.60 across countries). On average, subjects underestimated the number of calls per month (geometric mean ratio of recalled to actual = 0.92, 95% CI 0.85 to 0.99), whereas duration of calls was overestimated (geometric mean ratio = 1.42, 95% CI 1.29 to 1.56). The ratio of recalled to actual use increased with level of use, showing underestimation in light users and overestimation in heavy users. There was substantial heterogeneity in this ratio between countries. Inter-individual variation was also large, and increased with level of use. CONCLUSIONS: Volunteer subjects recalled their recent phone use with moderate systematic error and substantial random error. This large random error can be expected to reduce the power of the Interphone study to detect an increase in risk of brain, acoustic nerve, and parotid gland tumours with increasing mobile phone use, if one exists.

BACKGROUND: Chemoradiotherapy is an effective treatment for anal cancer, yet from follow-up many survivors seem to suffer from late effects. Data of long-term health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in anal cancer survivors are limited, and there is a growing interest in cancer survivorship. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A national cohort of all anal cancer survivors treated with curative chemoradiotherapy in 2000-2007 was invited to a cross-sectional study. Of 199 eligible survivors, 128 (64%) returned the questionnaires, the median time since diagnosis was 66 months. The median age was 61 years and 79% were women. HRQOL was evaluated with EORTC questionnaires QLQ-C30 and QLQ-CR29, and neurotoxicity with the Scale of Chemotherapy-Induced Neurotoxicity. An age- and sex-matched reference group of volunteers (n = 269) not treated for pelvic cancer answered the same questionnaires. Results from QLQ-C30 of the reference group were compared to Norwegian and Dutch normative data. RESULTS: The mean scores of anal cancer survivors were poorer compared to volunteers and normative data. Anal cancer survivors reported significant impairment of function, especially social and role function, compared to the volunteers (difference ≥ 20 points, p < 0.001). Survivors had markedly increased scores for fatigue, dyspnoea, insomnia and diarrhoea (difference ≥ 15 points, p < 0.001). The global quality of life was significantly reduced (difference 15 points, p < 0.001). Anal cancer survivors had increased stool frequency, more buttock pain, flatulence, faecal incontinence, impotence (males), dyspareunia and reduced sexual interest (females) (difference ≥ 15 points, p < 0.001). There was increased frequency of tinnitus in survivors treated with cisplatin-based chemotherapy (p = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: Survivors after chemoradiotherapy for anal cancer have significant long-term impairment of HRQOL. Reduced social, role and sexual function, and increased diarrhoea, incontinence for gas and stools, and buttock pain were commonly reported. Increased awareness of this may lead to better management of late effects and better care for cancer survivors.

Abstract Brain tumors are some of the most lethal adult cancers and there is a concern that the incidence is increasing. It has been suggested that the reported increased incidence can be explained by improvements in diagnostic procedures, although this has not been totally resolved. The aim of our study was to describe the incidence trends of adult primary intracerebral tumors in four Nordic countries during a period with introduction of new diagnostic procedures and increasing prevalence of mobile phone users. Information about benign and malignant primary intracerebral tumor cases 20–79 years of age was obtained from the national cancer registries in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden for the years 1969–98 and estimates of person‐years at risk were calculated from the information obtained from national population registries. Annual age standardized incidence rates per 100,000 person‐years were calculated and time trends analyses were carried out using Poisson regression. The overall incidence of all intracerebral tumors ranged from 8.4–11.8 for men and 5.8–9.3 for women, corresponding to an average annual increase of 0.6% for men (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.4, 0.7) and 0.9% for women (95% CI = 0.7, 1.0). The increase in the incidence was confined to the late 1970s and early 1980s and coinciding with introduction of improved diagnostic methods. This increase was largely confined to the oldest age group. After 1983 and during the period with increasing prevalence of mobile phone users, the incidence has remained relatively stable for both men and women. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

The diurnal and annual variability of solar UV radiation in Europe is described for different latitudes, seasons and different biologic weighting functions. For the description of this variability under cloudless skies the widely used one-dimensional version of the radiative transfer model UVSPEC is used. We reconfirm that the major factor influencing the diurnal and annual variability of UV irradiance is solar elevation. While ozone is a strong absorber of UV radiation its effect is relatively constant when compared with the temporal variability of clouds. We show the significant role that clouds play in modifying the UV climate by analyzing erythemal irradiance measurements from 28 stations in Europe in summer. On average, the daily erythemal dose under cloudless skies varies between 2.2 kJ m(-2) at 70 degrees N and 5.2 kJ m(-2) at 35 degrees N, whereas these values are reduced to 1.5-4.5 kJ m(-2) if clouds are included. Thus clouds significantly reduce the monthly UV irradiation, with the smallest reductions, on average, at lower latitudes, which corresponds to the fact that it is often cloudless in the Mediterranean area in summer.

It has been reported that the incidence of meningioma increased in several industrialized countries in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The aim of this study was to evaluate the time trends in incidence of meningiomas in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden, with emphasis on the age distribution and sex ratio. Information about cases of meningiomas in people aged 15-84 years was obtained from the cancer registries of these Nordic countries for the years 1968-1997, and estimates of person-years at risk were calculated from information provided by the national population registries. Age-specific incidence rates per 100,000 and incidence rate ratios were calculated for 3-year periods. The female:male ratios were also evaluated. The combined incidence among men increased from 1.4 to 1.9 per 100,000 during the follow-up period, the corresponding rates for women were 2.6 and 4.5. The female:male ratio increased over time for several age groups and was as high as 3.5:1 in the group aged 40-44 years in the latest follow-up period (1993-1997). In summary, our results provide some support for the idea that the introduction of computed tomography in the late 1970s has had an impact on the detection of cases in people aged 60 and over. The decrease in the rate or detection postmortem has affected the incidence time trend, but it also coincides with widespread use of new imaging technologies. The increasing trend shown for the female:male ratio in the group aged 35-59 years is consistent with the possibility that increasing use of hormones may affect the incidence of meningiomas in women.

Experimental studies suggest that melatonin has a protective effect against breast cancer. Exposure to light suppresses melatonin secretion, but to a lesser degree in totally blind persons. Breast cancer was investigated in a cohort of 15 412 Norwegian visually impaired women. The risk among totally blind women was 0.64 (95% CI = 0.21–1.49, 5 cases only), and for those who became blind before age of 65, the SIR was 0.51 (95% CI = 0.11–1.49). Our findings give support to the ‘melatonin hypothesis’. © 2001 Cancer Research Campaign http://www.bjcancer.com