NSW Department of Communities and Justice

Abstract Addressing environmental, social and governance (ESG) issues has become a critical part of business strategy. This article explores the extent of ESG reporting of metal and mining sector companies listed in the Australian Securities Exchange to determine the nature of ESG indicators in use in the sector. The current study argues that stakeholder engagement is the key to enhance company environmental policy and sustainable development. According to the results of this study, ESG reporting motives are highly influenced by reporting regulations. Given the diversity in reporting of ESG, comparability of ESG strategic performance is problematic. This study contributes towards developing an ESG disclosure index, which companies could use as a legitimacy tool that external stakeholders could use to reliably measure and compare the ESG performance of companies. It also reveals there is an increased demand for more empirical research on integration of sustainability into strategic planning process. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment

<p>Criminology has focused mainly on problems of crime and violence in the large population centres of the Global North to the exclusion of the global countryside, peripheries and antipodes. Southern criminology is an innovative new approach that seeks to correct this bias. This book turns the origin stories of criminology, which simply assumed a global universality, on their head. It draws on a range of case studies to illustrate this point: tracing criminology's long fascination with dangerous masculinities back to Lombroso's theory of atavism, itself based on an orientalist interpretation of men of colour from the Global South; uncovering criminology's colonial legacy, perhaps best exemplified by the over-representation of Indigenous peoples in settler societies drawn into the criminal justice system; analysing the ways in which the sociology of punishment literature has also been based on Northern theories, which assume that forms of penalty roll out from the Global North to the rest of the world; and making the case that the harmful effects of eco-crimes and global warming are impacting more significantly on the Global South. The book also explores how the coloniality of gender shapes patterns of violence in the Global South. Southern criminology is not a new sub-discipline within criminology, but rather a journey toward cognitive justice. It promotes a perspective that aims to invent methods and concepts that bridge global divides and enhance the democratisation of knowledge, more befitting of global criminology in the twenty-first century.</p>

OBJECTIVES: Describe the standardized mortality ratio (SMR) and its trend in adults who have served time in prison. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study of 85,203 adults imprisoned in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, between 1 January 1988 and 31 December 2002. METHODS: We obtained information on deaths by record linkage with the Australian National Death Index (NDI). Mortality rates were estimated using the person-time method. SMRs were calculated using sex, age, and calendar-specific death rates from the NSW population. Time trends in SMRs were assessed using the test for linear trends. RESULTS: The median overall follow-up of the cohort was 7.7 years. We identified 5137 deaths (4714 men, 423 women) among the cohort of which the vast majority (4834, 94%) occurred following release from custody. All-cause SMR was 3.7 (95% CI: 3.6-3.8) in men and 7.8 (95% CI: 7.1-8.5) in women. SMRs were substantially raised for deaths due to mental and behavioural disorders (men: 13.2, 95% CI: 12.3-14.0; women: 62.8, 95% CI: 52.7-74.9) and drug-related deaths (men: 12.8, 95% CI: 12.2-13.5; women: 50.3, 95% CI: 43.7-57.8). The SMR for death by homicide was 10.2 (95% CI: 8.9-11.7) in men and 26.3 (95% CI: 17.8-39.0) in women. Aboriginal men were 4.8 times, and Aboriginal women 12.6 times, more likely to die than the general NSW population. Over the study period on average all-cause SMR decreased significantly in men (p = 0.003) and women (p = 0.05) largely due to the decline in SMRs for drug-related deaths and suicide. CONCLUSION: In the largest study so far reported, mortality of male and female offenders was far greater than expected for all major causes, especially deaths caused by drug overdose. Despite some indication of a reduction in excess mortality in recent years, there remains an overwhelming need for enhanced responses to mental health and drug problems for people who have been in prison.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to estimate the prevalence of suicidal ideation and suicide attempt among prisoners in New South Wales, Australia; and, among prisoners reporting suicidal ideation, to identify factors associated with suicide attempt. METHODS: A cross-sectional design was used. Participants were a random, stratified sample of 996 inmates who completed a telephone survey. The estimated population prevalence of suicidal ideation and suicide attempt were calculated and differences by sex and Aboriginality were tested using χ2 tests. Correlates of suicidal ideation and suicide attempt were tested using logistic regression. RESULTS: One-third of inmates reported lifetime suicidal ideation and one-fifth had attempted suicide. Women and Aboriginal participants were significantly more likely than men and non-Aboriginal participants, respectively, to report attempting suicide. Correlates of suicidal ideation included violent offending, traumatic brain injury, depression, self-harm, and psychiatric hospitalisation. Univariate correlates of suicide attempt among ideators were childhood out-of-home care, parental incarceration and psychiatric hospitalization; however, none of these remained significant in a multivariate model. CONCLUSIONS: Suicidal ideation and attempts are highly prevalent among prisoners compared to the general community. Assessment of suicide risk is a critical task for mental health clinicians in prisons. Attention should be given to ensuring assessments are gender- and culturally sensitive. Indicators of mental illness may not be accurate predictors of suicide attempt. Indicators of childhood trauma appear to be particularly relevant to risk of suicide attempt among prisoners and should be given attention as part of risk assessments.

AIMS: People who use heroin are frequently incarcerated multiple times. Reducing re-incarceration of this group is important for reducing both health risks associated with incarceration and the costs of correctional administration. Opioid substitution treatment (OST) in prisons may help to reduce re-incarceration, but research findings on this topic have been mixed. In this study, we examined the effect of OST in prison and after release on re-incarceration. DESIGN: Longitudinal cohort study. SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND MEASUREMENTS: Data on OST and incarceration were linked for a cohort of 375 male heroin users recruited originally in prisons in New South Wales, Australia. Data were linked for the period 1 June 1997-31 December 2006. Re-incarceration was examined using recurrent-event survival analysis models. Model 1 examined the effect of OST status at release from prison (i.e. in treatment versus out of treatment on the day of release) on re-incarceration. Model 2 considered the effect of remaining in OST after release on risk of re-incarceration. FINDINGS: Ninety per cent of participants were re-incarcerated following their first observed release. Pre-incarceration cocaine use was associated with a 13% increase in the average risk of re-incarceration. There was no significant association between simply being in OST at the time of release and risk of re-incarceration; however, in the model taking into account post-release retention in treatment, the average risk of re-incarceration was reduced by 20% while participants were in treatment. CONCLUSIONS: In New South Wales, Australia, opioid substitution treatment after release from prison has reduced the average risk of re-incarceration by one-fifth.

OBJECTIVE: Despite being at high risk, little is known about traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) among incarcerated young people. This study aims to describe the prevalence of TBI among incarcerated young people and assess the association with mental health, substance use, and offending behaviors. SETTING: The 2009 NSW Young People in Custody Health Survey was conducted in 9 juvenile detention centers. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 361 young people agreed to participate, representing 80% of all incarcerated young people. MAIN MEASURES: Young people were asked if they ever had a head injury where they became unconscious or "blacked-out." The survey used the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders for Children to assess for psychiatric disorders, the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test, and the Severity of Dependence Scale to measure problematic substance use. RESULTS: The sample comprised 88% man, 48% Aboriginal, with an average age of 17 years. One-third (32%) of young people reported ever experiencing a TBI, and 13% reported multiple TBIs. The majority (92%) of "most serious" TBIs were defined as mild, and the most common cause was an assault (62% woman, 34% man). Young people who reported a history of TBI (compared with those reporting no TBI) were significantly more likely to be diagnosed with a mental health disorder, psychological distress, a history of bullying, problematic substance use, participation in fights, and offending behaviors. Reporting multiple (>2) TBIs conferred a higher risk of psychological disorders and problematic substance use. CONCLUSIONS: Incarcerated young people have high rates of TBI. Enhanced detection of TBI among incarcerated young people will assist clinicians in addressing the associated psychosocial sequelae.

The climate crisis has detrimental impacts on the mental health and wellbeing of children and young people. Psychological effects include feelings of fear, overwhelm, worry, distress, hopelessness and anger; PTSD; depression; anxiety; phobias; panic disorder; sleep disturbances; attachment disorders; learning difficulties; substance abuse; shock and trauma symptoms; adjustment problems; behavioural problems; and, suicidal thinking. First Nations' children and young people are particularly at risk due to loss of place, identity, culture, land and customs informed by kinship relationships with the Earth; while sustainable land use practices and connection to Country and community can enhance climate resilience. In Western Australia (WA), some young people engage in climate activism - including striking from school - to demand government action to address the causes of climate change, including colonisation and capitalism. Climate activism can promote resilience, particularly when children and young people can emotionally engage in the climate crisis; when mental health is systemically supported; when climate communication is transparent and comprehensive; and, when activism is informed by the knowledges and wisdoms of First Nations peoples and grounded on Country. This article is co-authored by WA young people, Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal academics, activists and practitioners engaged in youth, mental health and climate justice spaces. We argue for structural change to address the causes of the climate crisis, alongside enhanced evidence and approaches to appropriately support the mental health of children and young people. Furthermore, we support the call of Aboriginal peoples to ensure culturally appropriate, place-based responses based in caring for Country.

Despite evidence of high rates of smoking among prisoners, there has been limited research that describes smoking patterns and risk factors associated with smoking in this group. This study describes inmate smokers and identifies factors associated with smoking in prison, using a survey comprising a cross-sectional random sample of inmates stratified by sex, age and Aboriginality. A total of 914 adult inmates (747 men, 167 women) were recruited from 29 New South Wales (Australia) correctional centres. Information on the prevalence of smoking, smoking history, smoking behaviours and other risk factors were collected. Of the participants, 79% were current smokers (78% men, 83% women). Younger inmates were more likely than older inmates to smoke (86% vs. 64%). Most individuals smoked between 11 and 20 cigarettes a day and a median of 50 grams per week. In the previous year, over half (52%) of current smokers had attempted to quit or reduce the amount they smoked. At the time of the survey, 58% of smokers had plans to quit; 21% within 3 months. Independent predictors of current smoking in the multivariate analysis were past use of cannabis and a history of illicit drug use. The prevalence of smoking in prison is extraordinarily high and exceeds that of the general community. Despite this, the majority of prisoners report plans to quit. Readily available smoking cessation advice, support and treatment are needed to assist those wanting to quit in this stressful environment. As the prevalence of smoking within the general community declines, assisting cessation in groups containing a disproportionate number of smokers will become increasingly important. Despite high levels of tobacco dependence, many prisoners intend to quit and health planners and custodial authorities need to encourage and support inmates who do attempt to quit.

INTRODUCTION: This study used nursing triage text to detect drug- and alcohol-related emergency department (ED) presentations and describe their patient and service delivery characteristics. METHODS: Data were reviewed for all ED presentations from 2004 to 2006 (n = 263 937) from two hospitals in Sydney, Australia. Each record included two nursing triage free-text fields, which were searched for more than 100 drug-related and more than 60 alcohol-related terms. Adjusted odds ratios were used to compare the characteristics of drug and alcohol-related ED presentations with all other ED presentation types. RESULTS: Just over 5% of ED presentations were identified as alcohol-related and 2% as drug-related. The most prevalent drug-related ED presentations specified were related to amphetamines (18%), heroin (14%), cannabis (14%) and ecstasy (12%), while nearly half (43%) were drug unspecified. Polydrug use was mentioned in 25% of drug-related and 9% of alcohol-related ED presentations, with the highest rate of polydrug use among ecstasy-related (68%) presentations. Drug- and alcohol-related ED presentations were significantly more likely than other ED presentations to have a mental health diagnosis, with the highest rates found among cannabis-related (OR = 7.6) or amphetamine-related (OR = 7.5) presentations. CONCLUSION: The ED provides an opportunity for early intervention for patients presenting with comorbid drug and alcohol and mental health problems. Further research is needed to assess the prevalence of drug and alcohol problems in ED patients with mental health problems and to develop effective interventions in that setting.

Efficient human resources development is vital for facilitating tuberculosis control in developing countries, and appropriate training of front-line staff is an important component of this process. Africa and Central Asia are over-represented in global tuberculosis statistics. Although the African region contributes only about 11% of the world population, it accounts for at least 25% of annual TB notifications, a proportion that continues to increase due to poor case management and the adverse impact of HIV/AIDS. Central Asia's estimated current average tuberculosis prevalence rate of 240/100,000 is significantly higher than the global average of 217/100,000. With increased resources currently becoming available for countries in Africa and Central Asia to improve tuberculosis control, it is important to highlight context-specific training benchmarks, and propose how human resources deficiencies may be addressed, in part, through efficient (re)training of frontline tuberculosis workers. This article compares the quality, quantity and distribution of tuberculosis physicians, laboratory staff, community health workers and nurses in Nigeria and Kyrgyzstan, and highlights implications for (re)training tuberculosis workers in developing countries.

Abstract Anger is an important dimension of affect and a prominent feature of posttraumatic mental health, but it is commonly overlooked in postdisaster settings. We aimed to examine the distribution and implications of significant anger problems in the aftermath of a natural disaster, via analyses of Beyond Bushfires survey data from 736 residents of rural communities 5 years after the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in Victoria, Australia. Assessments included the five‐item Dimensions of Anger Reaction (DAR‐5) scale along with measures of PTSD, depression, and significant mental illness, and indicators of life satisfaction, suicidality, hostile aggressive behavior, and violence exposure. The results indicated that approximately 10% of respondents from areas highly affected by the bushfires scored above the provisional cutoff criteria for significant anger problems on the DAR‐5, which was a more than 3‐fold increase, OR = 3.26, relative to respondents from areas of low‐to‐moderate bushfire impact. The rates were higher among women, younger participants, and those who were unemployed, and co‐occurred commonly, although not exclusively, with other postdisaster mental health problems. Anger problems were also associated with lower life satisfaction, β = −.31, an 8‐fold increase in suicidal ideation, OR = 8.68, and a nearly 13‐fold increase in hostile aggressive behavior, OR = 12.98. There were associations with anger problems and violence exposure, which were reduced when controlling for covariates, including probable PTSD. The findings provide evidence indicating that anger is a significant issue for postdisaster mental health and should be considered routinely alongside other posttraumatic mental health issues.

Summary This paper proposes closed‐form analytical solutions to the axisymmetric consolidation of an unsaturated soil stratum using the equal strain hypothesis. Following the 1‐dimensional (1D) consolidation theory for unsaturated soil mechanics, polar governing equations describing the air and water flows are first presented on the basis of Fick's law and Darcy's law, respectively. The current study takes into account the peripheral smear caused by an installation of vertical drain. Separation of variables and Laplace transformation are mainly adopted in the analytical derivation to obtain final solutions. Then, the hydraulic conductivity ratio, the radius of influence zone and smear parameters influencing time‐dependent excess pore pressures, and the average degree of consolidation are graphically interpreted. In this study, a comparison made between the proposed equal strain results and the existing free strain results suggests that both hypotheses would deliver similar predictions. Moreover, it is found that the smear zone resulting from vertical drain installations would hinder the consolidation rate considerably.

Global trade has increased nearly 100-fold since 1950, according to the World Trade Organization. Today, major changes in trade are occurring with the advent of mega-ships that can transport thousands more containers than cargo ships now in use. Because global trade is expected to increase dramatically, the railroad industry-in the U.S. alone-has invested more than $5 billion a year over the past decade to expand rail yards and enhance rail routes to transport goods from ports to retail destinations. This article describes cancer risks for residents living in close proximity to rail yards with emissions of diesel particulate matter pollution from locomotives, trucks and yard equipment. The article examines the demographics (income, race/ethnicity) of populations living in the highest estimated cancer risk zones near 18 major rail yards in California, concluding that the majority are over-represented by either lower-income or minority residents (or both). The authors also describe a review of the news media and environmental impact reports to determine if rail yards are still being constructed or expanded in close proximity to homes and schools or in working class/working poor communities of color. The paper suggests policy efforts that might provide more public health protection and result in more "environmentally just" siting of rail yards. The authors conclude that diesel pollution from rail yards, which creates significant diesel cancer risks for those living near the facilities, is an often overlooked public health, health disparities and environmental justice issue in the U.S. The conclusions are relevant to other countries where international trade is increasing and large new intermodal rail facilities are being considered.

BACKGROUND: Dental dams have been distributed to women prisoners for protection against HIV and other sexually transmissible infections (STIs) in some Canadian and Australian prisons for over a decade. However, we do not know whether they serve any useful public health purpose. OBJECTIVE: To determine how dental dams are used in women's prisons in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. METHOD: Using quantitative and qualitative methods, we investigated women's sexual practices with a focus on how dental dams are used in NSW prisons. RESULTS: Although 71 of the 199 (36%) women reported having had sex with another inmate, with oral sex involved in most encounters, only eight (4%) had ever used a dental dam. The main sources of STI transmission risk among women prisoners were oral sex, manual sex and sharing dildos. Furthermore, sharing razors could also allow the transmission of blood-borne viruses, which could occur during sex in the presence of cuts or menstrual fluid. The high rates of hepatitis B and C among incarcerated women compound this risk. CONCLUSION: Dental dams are not widely used by women prisoners and we question their utility in women's prisons. Oral sex is an important risk factor for acquisition of herpes simplex virus type 1, but most women in NSW prisons (89%) are already infected. Condoms and latex gloves may have more use. Condoms could be used as a barrier on shared dildos and sex toys, while latex gloves could be used to protect cut and grazed hands from vaginal and menstrual fluids.

BACKGROUND: The link between psychotic disorders and violent offending is well established; knowledge about risk of post-illness-onset offending across the full spectrum of psychiatric disorders is lacking. We aimed to compare rates of any offending and violent offending committed after the onset of illness, according to diagnostic group, with population controls. METHOD: A 25% random sample of the Danish population (n = 521 340) was followed from their 15th birthday until offending occurred. Mental health status was considered as a time-varying exposure in a Poisson regression model used to examine the duration from service contact to the offence. RESULTS: Males with any psychiatric contact had an incidence rate ratio (IRR) of 2.91 [95% confidence interval (CI) 2.80-3.02] for any offending; 4.18 (95% CI 3.99-4.38) for violent offending. Associations were stronger for women (IRR 4.17, 95% CI 3.95-4.40 for any offending; 8.02, 95% CI 7.20-8.94 for violent offending). Risk was similar across diagnostic groups for any offending in males, while variation between diagnostic groups was seen for male violent and female offending, both any and violent. CONCLUSIONS: Risk of offending, particularly violent offending, was elevated across a range of mental disorders following first contact with mental health services. The extent of variation in strength of effect across diagnoses differed by gender.

Self-concept was related theoretically with delinquency in the first two decades following World War II. Research in that period produced encouraging results, but only a paucity of empirical work on the relationship between self-concept and delinquency appears to have been done between the mid-1970s and early 1990s. This study utilized the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale to examine 230 adolescents from Australian high schools and from institutions incarcerating young offenders. They were categorized as nondelinquents, noninstitutionalized delinquents, and institutionalized delinquents. Differences were evident in the total and subscale scores of nondelinquents as compared with their delinquent counterparts. The implications of the results in the context of delinquency theories and for dealing with delinquent adolescents are discussed.

OBJECTIVE: This paper provides an overview of the insanity defence. An historical context is offered and each element of the M'Naghten Rules is discussed, highlighting differing interpretations within various jurisdictions. Discussion is offered on the role of expert evidence in addressing the 'ultimate issue' before the courts. Significant case law in relation to the insanity defence is highlighted. CONCLUSIONS: Psychiatrists have an important role to play in addressing issues central to the M'Naghten Rules and making these accessible and comprehensible to court and jurors in particular. Insanity is a legal construct designed to determine the extent to which a person may be deemed criminally responsible for a criminal act and is often difficult to reconcile within medical and public paradigms of mental illness and justice. Principles are offered to guide psychiatrists who are called to give evidence in cases where the mental illness defence has been raised.

BACKGROUND: In 2008, a new forensic hospital was opened as a totally smoke-free facility. This study describes the attitudes and experience of mental health professionals working in the high secure mental health facility three years after it was opened. It is part of a larger evaluation describing the experience of current and discharged hospital patients. METHODS: Quantitative data was collected using a survey of hospital staff (N = 111) with a 50% response rate. The survey collected demographic and smoking data to describe staff responses to statements relating to hospital smoking policy, patient care and staff support. RESULTS: Among staff surveyed, 13% were current smokers and 41% were ex-smokers (10% quit after commencing employment in the smoke-free hospital). Most (88%) preferred to work in a smoke-free environment, although this was significantly lower in smokers compared to non-smokers (39% vs. 95%). While most staff felt that the smoke-free environment had a positive impact on the health of patients (86%) and on themselves (79%), smokers were significantly less likely to agree. Just over half (57%) of staff surveyed agreed that patient care was easier in a totally smoke-free environment, although less smokers agreed compared to non-smokers. Staff who smoked were also significantly less likely to indicate they had sufficient support working in a smoke-free environment, compared to non-smokers (15% vs. 38%). CONCLUSIONS: The staff surveyed supported the smoke-free workplace policy; most agreed that patient care was easier and that the policy did not lead to an increase in patient aggression. Implementation of a total smoking ban can result in positive health outcomes for patients and staff, and may influence some staff to quit. Staff who smoke have a less positive experience of the policy and require additional support.

INTRODUCTION: The prisoner population is ageing, and consideration is needed for how to best support those with age-related health conditions in the system. Existing work practices and organizational structures often fail to meet the needs of prisoners with dementia, and prison staff experience high levels of burden because of the increased needs of these prisoners. Little is known about the best method of responding to the needs of this growing subpopulation of prisoners. METHOD: A scoping review was conducted to answer the question: what are the perceived best care options for prisoners with dementia? To be included, publications had to be publicly available, reported on research findings, or viewed opinions and commentaries on care practices relevant to older prisoners with dementia. Searches were conducted in 11 databases to identify relevant publications. Data from the included publications were extracted and summarized into themes. RESULTS: Eight themes were identified that could support better care practices for prisoners with dementia: (1) early and ongoing screening for older prisoners; (2) specialized services; (3) specialized units; (4) programs or activities; (5) adaptations to current contexts; (6) early release or parole for older prisoners with dementia deemed at low risk of reoffending; and (7) training younger prisoners (8) as well as staff to assist older prisoners with dementia. Besides practical strategies improving care practice, costs, prison-specific resources, and staff skills were highlighted as care barriers across all themes. A lack of empirical evidence supported these findings. CONCLUSION: One of the implications of the international ageing prison population is the higher number of people living with dementia being incarcerated. Suggestions for best care approaches for prisoners with dementia now need to move from opinion to empirical approaches to guide practice.

ISSUES: Limited resources may dictate the use of self-reported hepatitis B virus (HBV) status to determine the need for testing and/or vaccination in resource-poor settings, as well as in research and surveillance. APPROACH: A synthesis of the literature on the criterion validity of self-reported HBV infection and vaccination history among injecting drug users (IDU) in order to determine the utility or otherwise of self-reports in this area. KEY FINDINGS: The degree of agreement between self-reported and serological HBV status is consistently poor among IDU. In previous research, 46-95% of IDU with serological evidence of exposure to HBV did not report a history of infection, and serological evidence of vaccine-conferred immunity was not detected among 50-73% of IDU who reported being vaccinated. IMPLICATIONS: A lack of awareness or misapprehension about their HBV status may lead some IDU to inadvertently engage in behaviours which place their injecting and sexual partners at risk, contributing to the continued potential for high incidence of HBV infection among this population. CONCLUSION: Self-reported histories should not be used in lieu of serological testing when assessing infection history or immunisation status. Poor criterion validity also indicates that self-reports of HBV infection status should not be used to estimate the prevalence and incidence of this infection. Due to their low sensitivity, self-reports of HBV infection should at best be considered only as a lower bound prevalence estimate.