Rhode Island Sea Grant

Aircraft measurements of ozone, its key precursors, and a variety of chemical tracers were made in the troposphere of the western and central Pacific in October 1991. These data are presented and analyzed to examine the occurrence of low ozone concentrations in the remote marine boundary layer of the tropical and equatorial Pacific Ocean. The data from these flights out of Guam, covering an area extending from the equator to 20°N and from south of the Philippines to Hawaii, show average O 3 concentrations as low as 8–9 ppb (ppb = 10 −9 v/v) at altitudes of 0.3–0.5 km in the boundary layer. Individual measurements as low as 2–5 ppb were recorded. Low O 3 concentrations do not always persist in space and time. High O 3 , generally associated with the transport of upper tropospheric air, was also encountered in the boundary layer. In practically all cases, O 3 increased to values as large as 25–30 ppb within 2 km above the boundary layer top. Steady state model computations are used to suggest that these low O 3 concentrations are a result of net photochemical O 3 destruction in a low NO environment, sea surface deposition, and low net entrainment rates (3.6 ± 1.7 mm s −1 ) from the free troposphere. Day/night measurements of select organic species (e.g., ethane, propane, C 2 Cl 4 ) suggest that Cl atom concentrations in the vicinity of 10 5 molecules cm −3 may be present in the marine boundary layer in the early morning hours. This Cl atom abundance can only be rationalized if sea‐salt aerosols release active chlorine (Cl 2 or HOCl) to the gas phase when exposed to sunlight. These Cl atom concentrations, however, are still insufficient, and halogen chemistry is not likely to be an important contributor to the observed low O 3 .

Kelp farming is increasing along the temperate coastlines of the Americas and Europe. The economic, ecological, and social frameworks surrounding kelp farming in these new areas are in contrast with the conditions of progenitor kelp farming regions in China, Japan, and Korea. Thus, identifying and addressing the environmental and social impacts of kelp farming in these regions is vital to ensuring the industry’s long-term sustainability. Here, a conceptual model of the human and natural systems supporting this nascent kelp aquaculture sector was developed using Maine, USA as a focal region. Potential negative impacts of kelp aquaculture were identified to be habitat degradation, overfishing of wild seeds, predation and competition with wild fish and genes, and transmission of diseases. Increased food security, improved restoration efforts, greater fisheries productivity, and alternative livelihoods development were determined to be potential positive impacts of kelp aquaculture. Changes in biodiversity and productivity resulting from either negative or positive impacts of kelp aquaculture were confirmed to have downstream effects on local fisheries and coastal communities. Recommendations to improve or protect the ecosystem services tangential to kelp farming include: define ecosystem and management boundaries, assess ecosystem services and environmental carrying capacity, pursue ecologically and socially considerate engineering, and protect the health and genetic diversity of wild kelp beds. Recommendations to ensure that kelp farming improves the well-being of all stakeholders include: increase horizontal expansion, expand and teach Best Management Practices, and develop climate change resiliency. Additionally, an integrated management strategy should be developed for wild and farmed kelp to ensure that kelp aquaculture is developed in the context of other sectors and goals.

Abstract The challenges faced in adapting to climate change present themselves with increasing urgency. Nowhere will these challenges be greater than in the developing world where often weak institutions and governance systems struggle to deal with mounting pressures from population growth, inadequate infrastructure, and diminishing or already depleted natural resources. This article synthesizes the many global climate change and other anthropogenic threats to coastal ecosystems and draws on lessons and good practices from global experience in integrated coastal management (ICM) that can be transferred to coastal adaptation to these challenges. The case is made that the process and best practices of ICM are not radically changed by applying a climate lens. For the most part, the good practices of planning and implementation coastal management measures apply equally to climate change as they do to other coastal issues. However, there are some new and important considerations that enter into planning and decision-making with respect to climate change. These considerations include the need for an even greater emphasis on nature-based coastal protection strategies and measures, more pronounced issues of uncertainty in decision-making, the need for a longer planning horizon, and the importance of including in the decision-making equation opportunities to mitigate the sources of climate change with adaptation measures. Keywords: climate changecoastal adaptationcoastal impactsICMlessons learned Disclaimer: The authors' views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development. Notes 1. Ecosystem resilience is the ability to resist shock or recover quickly from stress.

A three‐dimensional mesoscale transport/photochemical model is used to study the transport and photochemical transformation of trace species over eastern Asia and western Pacific for the period from September 20 to October 6, 1991, of the Pacific Exploratory Mission‐West A experiment. The influence of emissions from the continental boundary layer that was evident in the observed trace species distributions in the lower troposphere over the ocean is well simulated by the model. In the upper troposphere, species such as O 3 , NO y (total reactive nitrogen species), and SO 2 which have a significant source in the stratosphere are also simulated well in the model, suggesting that the upper tropospheric abundances of these species are strongly influenced by stratospheric fluxes and upper tropospheric sources. In the case of SO 2 the stratospheric flux is identified to be mostly from the Mount Pinatubo eruption. Concentrations in the upper troposphere for species such as CO and hydrocarbons, which are emitted in the continental boundary layer and have a sink in the troposphere, are significantly underestimated by the model. Two factors have been identified to contribute significantly to the underestimate: one is emissions upwind of the model domain (eastern Asia and western Pacific); the other is that vertical transport is underestimated in the model. Model results are also grouped by back trajectories to study the contrast between compositions of marine and continental air masses. The model‐calculated altitude profiles of trace species in continental and marine air masses are found to be qualitatively consistent with observations. However, the difference in the median values of trace species between continental air and marine air is about twice as large for the observed values as for model results. This suggests that the model underestimates the outflow fluxes of trace species from the Asian continent and the Pacific rim countries to the ocean. Observed altitude profiles for species like CO and hydrocarbons show a negative gradient in continental air and a positive gradient in marine air. A mechanism which may be responsible for the altitude gradients is proposed.

Abstract Numerical simulations of sequences of earthquakes and aseismic slip (SEAS) have made great progress over past decades to address important questions in earthquake physics. However, significant challenges in SEAS modeling remain in resolving multiscale interactions between earthquake nucleation, dynamic rupture, and aseismic slip, and understanding physical factors controlling observables such as seismicity and ground deformation. The increasing complexity of SEAS modeling calls for extensive efforts to verify codes and advance these simulations with rigor, reproducibility, and broadened impact. In 2018, we initiated a community code-verification exercise for SEAS simulations, supported by the Southern California Earthquake Center. Here, we report the findings from our first two benchmark problems (BP1 and BP2), designed to verify different computational methods in solving a mathematically well-defined, basic faulting problem. We consider a 2D antiplane problem, with a 1D planar vertical strike-slip fault obeying rate-and-state friction, embedded in a 2D homogeneous, linear elastic half-space. Sequences of quasi-dynamic earthquakes with periodic occurrences (BP1) or bimodal sizes (BP2) and their interactions with aseismic slip are simulated. The comparison of results from 11 groups using different numerical methods show excellent agreements in long-term and coseismic fault behavior. In BP1, we found that truncated domain boundaries influence interseismic stressing, earthquake recurrence, and coseismic rupture, and that model agreement is only achieved with sufficiently large domain sizes. In BP2, we found that complexity of fault behavior depends on how well physical length scales related to spontaneous nucleation and rupture propagation are resolved. Poor numerical resolution can result in artificial complexity, impacting simulation results that are of potential interest for characterizing seismic hazard such as earthquake size distributions, moment release, and recurrence times. These results inform the development of more advanced SEAS models, contributing to our further understanding of earthquake system dynamics.

Abstract Community-based coastal resources management has become a popular approach to marine conservation and sustainable fisheries management in the Asia-Pacific region. One premise of this approach is that enforcement of community management initiatives is the primary responsibility of the community and that, in most instances, they have the capability to effectively enforce locally developed regulations and rules. The socioeconomic theory of resource management compliance is reviewed and applied to community-based case examples from North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Compliance with nondestructive exploitation practices in several village sites, empirically measured by changes in live hard coral cover, was related to reef distance from a settlement area and not significantly related to visibility from a settlement. A typology of enforcement strategies relative to the type of violator and violation is presented. In certain instances, a comanagement approach is preferred in order to achieve effective enforcement and high compliance.

A combined atmospheric chemistry-meteorology experiment, the Dynamics and Chemistry of the Marine Stratocumulus (DYCOMS), was carried out during the summer of 1985 over the eastern Pacific Ocean using the NCAR Electra aircraft. The objectives were to 1) study the budgets of several trace reactive species in a relatively pristine, steadystate, horizontally homogeneous, well-mixed boundary layer capped by a strong inversion and 2) study the formation, maintenance and dissipation of marine stratocumulus that persists off the California coast (as well as similar regions elsewhere) in summer. We obtained both mean and turbulence measurements of meteorological variables within and above the cloud-capped boundary layer that is typical of this region. Ozone was used successfully as a tracer for estimating entrainment rate. We found, however, that horizontal variability was large enough for ozone that a correction needs to be included in the ozone budget for the horizontal displacement due to turns even though the airplane was allowed to drift with the wind. The time rate-of-change term was significant in both the ozone and radon budgets; as a result, a considerably longer time interval than the two hours used between sets of flight legs would be desirable to improve the measurement accuracy of this term.

Abstract Livelihood development is often integrated into coastal management projects as a strategy for increasing project success. This strategy is taken because it is known that livelihood development increases the interest, support, and trust of the community in coastal and marine ecosystem conservation. The research described in this article explores what factors contribute to enterprise success and whether livelihood interventions lead to other benefits in addition to employment and income generation. A learning portfolio approach was used that draws on the field sites and projects supported by the USAID-funded Sustainable Coastal Communities and Ecosystem (SUCCESS) Program. Our experience suggests that key factors that influence livelihood enterprise success (revenue generation) include: the type of enterprise supported, the form of extension support provided, community context, and enterprise ownership (i.e., group or individual). The results also confirm the idea that there are important benefits from livelihood development not related to profitability, which can improve the impact of coastal management programs. We found benefits that include increased resilience, community and gender empowerment, stronger social ties, and improved coordination with local government. Keywords: enterprise developmentintegrated coastal managementmicro-creditNicaraguasustainable livelihoodsTanzaniaThailand

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction: the global protein - ecological crisis The social ecology of aquaculture Defining ecological aquaculture Need to incorporate ecological aquaculture into the planning for sustainable fisheries Choosing the most efficient protein-production system for a crowded planet Aquaculture pollution and habitat losses Examples of ecological aquaculture systems The need for rapid progress towards sustainable, ecological aquaculture systems The need for science in the development of ecological aquaculture Certifying sustainable, ecological aquaculture systems Conclusions: ecological aquaculture as the paradigm for the blue revolution

Abstract Three simulations of the circulation in the Gulf of Mexico (the “Gulf”) using different numerical general circulation models are compared with results of recent large-scale observational campaigns conducted throughout the deep (>1500 m) Gulf. Analyses of these observations have provided new understanding of large-scale mean circulation features and variability throughout the deep Gulf. Important features include cyclonic flow along the continental slope, deep cyclonic circulation in the western Gulf, a counterrotating pair of cells under the Loop Current region, and a cyclonic cell to the south of this pair. These dominant circulation features are represented in each of the ocean model simulations, although with some obvious differences. A striking difference between all the models and the observations is that the simulated deep eddy kinetic energy under the Loop Current region is generally less than one-half of that computed from observations. A multidecadal integration of one of these numerical simulations is used to evaluate the uncertainty of estimates of velocity statistics in the deep Gulf computed from limited-length (4 years) observational or model records. This analysis shows that the main deep circulation features identified from the observational studies appear to be robust and are not substantially impacted by variability on time scales longer than the observational records. Differences in strengths and structures of the circulation features are identified, however, and quantified through standard error analysis of the statistical estimates using the model solutions.

This chapter contains sections titled: The importance of indigenous knowledge The need to evolve sustainable aquaculture ecosystems Farmer participatory approaches to development of sustainable aquaculture ecosystems Participatory assessment and planning methods PTD methodologies to develop sustainable aquaculture ecosystems Aqua/agroecosystem mapping Pictorial modeling Problem diagramming Systems diagramming The role of the aquaculture research station Defining sustainable, ecological aquaculture Conclusions

Academic review, promotion, and tenure processes place a premium on frequent publication in high-impact factor (IF) journals. However, conservation often relies on species-specific information that is unlikely to have the broad appeal needed for high-IF journals. Instead, this information is often distributed in low-IF, taxa- and region-specific journals. This suggests a potential mismatch between the incentives for academic researchers and the scientific needs of conservation implementation. To explore this mismatch, we looked at federal implementation of the United States Endangered Species Act (ESA), which requires the use of the "best available science" to list a species as endangered or threatened and thus receive powerful legal protections. In assessing the relationship between academic sources of this "best available science" and ESA implementation, we looked at the 13,292 sources (e.g., academic journals, books, reports, regulations, personal communications, etc.) cited by the second Obama administration (2012-2016) across all ESA listings. We compared the IFs of all 785 journals that published peer-reviewed papers cited in these listings against their citation frequency in ESA listings to determine whether a journal's IF varied in proportion with its contribution to federal conservation. Most of the peer-reviewed academic articles referenced in ESA listings came from low-IF or no-IF journals that tended to focus on specific taxa or regions. Although we support continued attention to cutting-edge, multidisciplinary science for its ability to chart new pathways and paradigms, our findings stress the need to value and fund the taxa- and region-specific science that underpins actionable conservation laws.

Greenwich Bay is an urbanized embayment of Narragansett Bay potentially impacted by multiple stressors. The present study identified the important stressors affecting Greenwich Bay benthic fauna. First, existing data and information were used to confirm that the waterbody was impaired. Second, the presence of source, stressor, and effect were established. Then linkages between source, stressor, and effect were developed. This allows identification of probable stressors adversely affecting the waterbody. Three pollutant categories were assessed: chemicals, nutrients, and suspended sediments. This weight of evidence approach indicated that Greenwich Bay was primarily impacted by eutrophication-related stressors. The sediments of Greenwich Bay were carbon enriched and low dissolved oxygen concentrations were commonly seen, especially in the western portions of Greenwich Bay. The benthic community was depauperate, as would be expected under oxygen stress. Although our analysis indicated that contaminant loads in Greenwich Bay were at concentrations where adverse effects might be expected, no toxicity was observed, as a result of high levels of organic carbon in these sediments reducing contaminant bioavailability. Our analysis also indicated that suspended sediment impacts were likely nonexistent for much of the Bay. This analysis demonstrates that the diagnostic procedure was useful to organize and assess the potential stressors impacting the ecological well-being of Greenwich Bay. This diagnostic procedure is useful for management of waterbodies impacted by multiple stressors. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:449-462. © 2016 SETAC.

Abstract The United States Northern Shortfin squid fishery is known for its large fluctuations in catch at annual scales. In the last 5 years, this fishery has experienced increased availability of Illex illecebrosus along the Northeast US continental shelf (NES), resulting in high catch per unit effort (CPUE) and early fishery closures due to quota exceedance. The fishery occurs within the Northwest Atlantic, whose complex dynamics are set up by the interplay between the large‐scale Gulf Stream, mesoscale eddies, Shelfbreak Jet, and shelf‐slope exchange processes. Our ability to understand and quantify this regional variability is requisite for understanding the availability patterns of Illex , which are largely influenced by oceanographic conditions. In an effort to advance our current understanding of the seasonal and interannual variability in this species' relative abundance on the NES, we used generalized additive models to examine the relationships between the physical environment and hotspots of productivity to changes in CPUE of I. illecebrosus in the Southern stock component, which comprises the US fishery. Specifically, we derived oceanographic indicators by pairing high‐resolution remote sensing data and global ocean reanalysis physical data to high‐resolution fishery catch data. We identified a suite of environmental covariates that were strongly related to instances of higher catch rates. In particular, bottom temperature, warm core rings, subsurface features, and frontal dynamics together serve as indicators of habitat condition and primary productivity hotspots, providing great utility for understanding the distribution of Illex with the potential for forecasting seasonal and interannual availability.

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction The case study of resettlement aquaculture in Indonesia Institutional framework and planning process Farming systems extensions and training programs Traditional training methods Farmer participatory traning methods Establishment of community integrated aquaculture schools Farmer-to-farmer visits Study tours to nations with relevant experiences Short-term analysis of successes and failures Problems and lack of sustainability of the aquaculture resettlement option (1994–present) The lack of social sustainability: aquaculture's role in equity and the rural poor The lack of environmental sustainability: how to ensure sustainability of cage aquaculture production in tropical reservoirs Conclusions

Predicted increases in wastewater flows from seven megacities by 2050 show that even with large capital investments in sewage treatment to treat an ever-increasing volume of wastewater, nitrogen loadings to coastal oceans will continue to increase dramatically. Furthermore, it is uncertain if nations will be able to afford the huge capital investments required to gain nitrogen reduction via tertiary or reverse osmosis treatments, or if these nitrogen reductions will be enough to fall below a threshold that would prevent the eutrophication of coastal waters. Carrying capacity models for use in coastal waters to guide the management of wastewater nutrient loadings are not widely available, making cost-benefit analyses difficult, if not impossible. In order to avoid continuing damage to coastal ecosystems from increased wastewater nutrient loadings, future urban ecosystems must plan for: (i) diverting a greater percentage of wastewaters inland, and more aggressively developing water markets for wastewaters; (ii) increasing research investments into understanding the ecological roles and carrying capacities of wastewater inputs to protect (and even possibly enhance) nearshore ecosystems; and (iii) developing new, innovative urban ecosystems that make productive use of wastewaters for aquaculture and agriculture. A pilot scale aquaculture-wetland ecosystem (AWE) using wastewaters was developed in Los Angeles County, California (USA) that grew luxuriant crops of Chinese water spinach and tilapia for food, and water hyacinths as soil conditioners (mulch and composts). The AWE removed over 97% of the nutrients from tertiary-treated wastewaters.

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Research to develop VAEs in Africa Impacts on farm productivity Technology adoption and transmission Ecological footprints Environment, economics and food security Realizing the potential Information ttransfer and sustained adoption Improvements in productivity Economical threshold for commercial transformation

Offshore renewable energy developments (OREDs) are projected to become common in the United States over the next two decades. There are both a need and an opportunity to guide efforts to identify and track impacts to the marine ecosystem resulting from these installations. A monitoring framework and standardized protocols that can be applied to multiple types of ORED would streamline scientific study, management, and permitting at these sites. We propose an adaptive and reactive framework based on indicators of the likely changes to the marine ecosystem due to ORED. We developed decision trees to identify suites of impacts at two scales (demonstration and commercial) depending on energy (wind, tidal, and wave), structure (e.g., turbine), and foundation type (e.g., monopile). Impacts were categorized by ecosystem component (benthic habitat and resources, fish and fisheries, avian species, marine mammals, and sea turtles) and monitoring objectives were developed for each. We present a case study at a commercial-scale wind farm and develop a monitoring plan for this development that addresses both local and national environmental concerns. In addition, framework has provided a starting point for identifying global research needs and objectives for understanding of the potential effects of ORED on the marine environment.

The Salton Sea is an endorheic, 980-km2 salt lake in the Sonoran Desert of southern California. The historical fish community switched from freshwater to marine species as salinity increased due to evaporation and brackish water inflows. Three species, bairdiella (Bairdiella icistia), orangemouth corvina (Cynoscion xanthulus), and sargo (Anisotremus davidsoni), established from introductions beginning in 1929. Thirty-four marine fish species from the northern Gulf of California were introduced between 1929 and 1956. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, a hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus x O. urolepis hornorum) invaded the Salton Sea and became dominant by numbers and weight. Research has shown that nearshore and estuarine areas have the highest catch rates of tilapia (over 11 kg/50 m net/h). Orangemouth corvina, bairdiella, sargo, and the hybrid tilapia grew faster, but had shorter life spans than conspecifics elsewhere, and Salton Sea conspecifics of 50 years ago. All four species aggregated along the nearshore and estuarine areas in the summer for reproduction and relief from low oxygen conditions in the pelagic areas of the marine lake. Restoration alternatives for the Salton Sea must recognize the value of estuarine and nearshore areas as essential fish habitats for the Salton Sea fisheries ecosystem.

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction The social ecology of ancient Hawaii Hawaiian integrated aquaculture ecosystems Freshwater taro fishpond ecosystems Other freshwater pond ecosystems Brackishwater pond ecosystems Nearshore mariculture ecosystems Nearshore fish traps The context of the Hawaiian innovations in the evolution of mariculture ecosystems