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Atmospheric general circulation models used for climate simulation and weather forecasting require the fluxes of radiation, heat, water vapor, and momentum across the land-atmosphere interface to be specified. These fluxes are calculated by submodels called land surface parameterizations. Over the last 20 years, these parameterizations have evolved from simple, unrealistic schemes into credible representations of the global soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer system as advances in plant physiological and hydrological research, advances in satellite data interpretation, and the results of large-scale field experiments have been exploited. Some modern schemes incorporate biogeochemical and ecological knowledge and, when coupled with advanced climate and ocean models, will be capable of modeling the biological and physical responses of the Earth system to global change, for example, increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Nanofluids—a simple product of the emerging world of nanotechnology—are suspensions of nanoparticles (nominally 1–100 nm in size) in conventional base fluids such as water, oils, or glycols. Nanofluids have seen enormous growth in popularity since they were proposed by Choi in 1995. In the year 2011 alone, there were nearly 700 research articles where the term nanofluid was used in the title, showing rapid growth from 2006 (175) and 2001 (10). The first decade of nanofluid research was primarily focused on measuring and modeling fundamental thermophysical properties of nanofluids (thermal conductivity, density, viscosity, heat transfer coefficient). Recent research, however, explores the performance of nanofluids in a wide variety of other applications. Analyzing the available body of research to date, this article presents recent trends and future possibilities for nanofluids research and suggests which applications will see the most significant improvement from employing nanofluids.

The very limited instrumental record makes extensive analyses of the natural variability of global tropical cyclone activities difficult in most of the tropical cyclone basins. However, in the two regions where reasonably reliable records exist (the North Atlantic and the western North Pacific), substantial multidecadal variability (particularly for intense Atlantic hurricanes) is found, but there is no clear evidence of long-term trends. Efforts have been initiated to use geological and geomorphological records and analysis of oxygen isotope ratios in rainfall recorded in cave stalactites to establish a paleoclimate of tropical cyclones, but these have not yet produced definitive results. Recent thermodynamical estimation of the maximum potential intensities (MPI) of tropical cyclones shows good agreement with observations. Although there are some uncertainties in these MPI approaches, such as their sensitivity to variations in parameters and failure to include some potentially important interactions such as ocean spray feedbacks, the response of upper-oceanic thermal structure, and eye and eyewall dynamics, they do appear to be an objective tool with which to predict present and future maxima of tropical cyclone intensity. Recent studies indicate the MPI of cyclones will remain the same or undergo a modest increase of up to 10%–20%. These predicted changes are small compared with the observed natural variations and fall within the uncertainty range in current studies. Furthermore, the known omissions (ocean spray, momentum restriction, and possibly also surface to 300-hPa lapse rate changes) could all operate to mitigate the predicted intensification. A strong caveat must be placed on analysis of results from current GCM simulations of the “tropical-cyclone-like” vortices. Their realism, and hence prediction skill (and also that of “embedded” mesoscale models), is greatly limited by the coarse resolution of current GCMs and the failure to capture environmental factors that govern cyclone intensity. Little, therefore, can be said about the potential changes of the distribution of intensities as opposed to maximum achievable intensity. Current knowledge and available techniques are too rudimentary for quantitative indications of potential changes in tropical cyclone frequency. The broad geographic regions of cyclogenesis and therefore also the regions affected by tropical cyclones are not expected to change significantly. It is emphasized that the popular belief that the region of cyclogenesis will expand with the 26°C SST isotherm is a fallacy. The very modest available evidence points to an expectation of little or no change in global frequency. Regional and local frequencies could change substantially in either direction, because of the dependence of cyclone genesis and track on other phenomena (e.g., ENSO) that are not yet predictable. Greatly improved skills from coupled global ocean–atmosphere models are required before improved predictions are possible.

Chapter 3 evaluates observed and projected changes in the frequency, intensity, spatial extent, and duration of extreme weather and climate events. This physical basis provides a picture of climate change and extreme events. But it does not by itself indicate the impacts experienced by humans or ecosystems. For example, for some sectors and groups of people, severe impacts may result from relatively minor weather and climate events. To understand impacts triggered by weather and climate events, the exposure and vulnerability of humans and ecological systems need to be examined. The emphasis of this chapter is on negative impacts, in line with this report's focus on managing the risks of extreme events and disasters. Weather and climate events, however, can and often do have positive impacts for some people and ecosystems. In this chapter, two different types of impacts on human and ecological systems are examined: (i) impacts of extreme weather and climate events; and (ii) extreme impacts triggered by less-than-extreme weather or climate events (in combination with non-climatic factors, such as high exposure and/or vulnerability). Where data are available, impacts are examined from sectoral and regional perspectives. Throughout this chapter, the term 'climate extremes' will be used to refer in brief to 'extreme weather and extreme climate events' as defined in the Glossary and discussed more extensively in Section 3.1.2.

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of overreaching on muscle strength, power, endurance and selected biochemical responses in rugby league players. Seven semi-professional rugby league players (.VO(2max) = 56.1 +/- 1.7 mL . kg (-1) . min (-1); age = 25.7 +/- 2.6 yr; BMI = 27.6 +/- 2.0) completed 6 weeks of progressive overload training with limited recovery periods. A short 7-day stepwise reduction taper immediately followed the overload period. Measures of muscular strength, power and endurance and selected biochemical parameters were taken before and after overload training and taper. Multistage fitness test running performance was significantly reduced (12.3 %) following the overload period. Although most other performance measures tended to decrease following the overload period, only peak hamstring torque at 1.05 rad . s (-1) was significantly reduced (p < 0.05). Following the taper, a significant increase in peak hamstring torque and isokinetic work at both slow (1.05 rad . s (-1)) and fast (5.25 rad . s (-1)) movement velocities were observed. Minimum clinically important performance decreases were measured in a multistage fitness test, vertical jump, 3-RM squat and 3-RM bench press and chin-up (max) following the overload period. Following the taper, minimum clinically important increases in the multistage fitness test, vertical jump, 3-RM squat and 3-RM bench press and chin-up (max) and 10-m sprint performance were observed. Compared to resting measures, the plasma testosterone to cortisol ratio, plasma glutamate, plasma glutamine to glutamate ratio and plasma creatine kinase activity demonstrated significant changes at the end of the overload training period (p < 0.05). These results suggest that muscular strength, power and endurance were reduced following the overload training, indicating a state of overreaching. The most likely explanation for the decreased performance is increased muscle damage via a decrease in the anabolic-catabolic balance.

The world in color presents a dazzling dimension of phenotypic variation. Biological interest in this variation has burgeoned, due to both increased means for quantifying spectral information and heightened appreciation for how animals view the world differently than humans. Effective study of color traits is challenged by how to best quantify visual perception in nonhuman species. This requires consideration of at least visual physiology but ultimately also the neural processes underlying perception. Our knowledge of color perception is founded largely on the principles gained from human psychophysics that have proven generalizable based on comparative studies in select animal models. Appreciation of these principles, their empirical foundation, and the reasonable limits to their applicability is crucial to reaching informed conclusions in color research. In this article, we seek a common intellectual basis for the study of color in nature. We first discuss the key perceptual principles, namely, retinal photoreception, sensory channels, opponent processing, color constancy, and receptor noise. We then draw on this basis to inform an analytical framework driven by the research question in relation to identifiable viewers and visual tasks of interest. Consideration of the limits to perceptual inference guides two primary decisions: first, whether a sensory-based approach is necessary and justified and, second, whether the visual task refers to perceptual distance or discriminability. We outline informed approaches in each situation and discuss key challenges for future progress, focusing particularly on how animals perceive color. Given that animal behavior serves as both the basic unit of psychophysics and the ultimate driver of color ecology/evolution, behavioral data are critical to reconciling knowledge across the schools of color research.

How the World Changed Social Media is the first book in Why We Post, a book series that investigates the findings of nine anthropologists who each spent 15 months living in communities across the world. This book offers a comparative analysis summarising the results of the research and exploring the impact of social media on politics and gender, education and commerce. What is the result of the increased emphasis on visual communication? Are we becoming more individual or more social? Why is public social media so conservative? Why does equality online fail to shift inequality offline? How did memes become the moral police of the internet? Supported by an introduction to the project’s academic framework and theoretical terms that help to account for the findings, the book argues that the only way to appreciate and understand something as intimate and ubiquitous as social media is to be immersed in the lives of the people who post. Only then can we discover how people all around the world have already transformed social media in such unexpected ways and assess the consequences.

The properties of acoustic speech have previously been investigated as possible cues for depression in adults. However, these studies were restricted to small populations of patients and the speech recordings were made during patients' clinical interviews or fixed-text reading sessions. Symptoms of depression often first appear during adolescence at a time when the voice is changing, in both males and females, suggesting that specific studies of these phenomena in adolescent populations are warranted. This study investigated acoustic correlates of depression in a large sample of 139 adolescents (68 clinically depressed and 71 controls). Speech recordings were made during naturalistic interactions between adolescents and their parents. Prosodic, cepstral, spectral, and glottal features, as well as features derived from the Teager energy operator (TEO), were tested within a binary classification framework. Strong gender differences in classification accuracy were observed. The TEO-based features clearly outperformed all other features and feature combinations, providing classification accuracy ranging between 81%-87% for males and 72%-79% for females. Close, but slightly less accurate, results were obtained by combining glottal features with prosodic and spectral features (67%-69% for males and 70%-75% for females). These findings indicate the importance of nonlinear mechanisms associated with the glottal flow formation as cues for clinical depression.

The discourse of the poor the problem of idleness the policing of the poor population, subsistence, poverty the Malthusian effect from morality to economy the moral economy of Adam Smith the condition of poverty pauperism and the labour-market pauper-land the mechanisms of prevention.

Mapping out the challenges and strategies for the widespread adoption of service computing.

To investigate the effect of altitude exposure on running economy (RE), 22 elite distance runners [maximal O(2) consumption (Vo(2)) 72.8 +/- 4.4 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1); training volume 128 +/- 27 km/wk], who were homogenous for maximal Vo(2) and training, were assigned to one of three groups: live high (simulated altitude of 2,000-3,100 m)-train low (LHTL; natural altitude of 600 m), live moderate-train moderate (LMTM; natural altitude of 1,500-2,000 m), or live low-train low (LLTL; natural altitude of 600 m) for a period of 20 days. RE was assessed during three submaximal treadmill runs at 14, 16, and 18 km/h before and at the completion of each intervention. Vo(2), minute ventilation (Ve), respiratory exchange ratio, heart rate, and blood lactate concentration were determined during the final 60 s of each run, whereas hemoglobin mass (Hb(mass)) was measured on a separate occasion. All testing was performed under normoxic conditions at approximately 600 m. Vo(2) (l/min) averaged across the three submaximal running speeds was 3.3% lower (P = 0.005) after LHTL compared with either LMTM or LLTL. Ve, respiratory exchange ratio, heart rate, and Hb(mass) were not significantly different after the three interventions. There was no evidence of an increase in lactate concentration after the LHTL intervention, suggesting that the lower aerobic cost of running was not attributable to an increased anaerobic energy contribution. Furthermore, the improved RE could not be explained by a decrease in Ve or by preferential use of carbohydrate as a metabolic substrate, nor was it related to any change in Hb(mass). We conclude that 20 days of LHTL at simulated altitude improved the RE of elite distance runners.

There is increasing recognition that the nutrition transition sweeping the world's cities is multifaceted. Urban food and nutrition systems are beginning to share similar features, including an increase in dietary diversity, a convergence toward "Western-style" diets rich in fat and refined carbohydrate and within-country bifurcation of food supplies and dietary conventions. Unequal access to the available dietary diversity, calories, and gastronomically satisfying eating experience leads to nutritional inequalities and diet-related health inequities in rich and poor cities alike. Understanding the determinants of inequalities in food security and nutritional quality is a precondition for developing preventive policy responses. Finding common solutions to under- and overnutrition is required, the first step of which is poverty eradication through creating livelihood strategies. In many cities, thousands of positions of paid employment could be created through the establishment of sustainable and self-sufficient local food systems, including urban agriculture and food processing initiatives, food distribution centers, healthy food market services, and urban planning that provides for multiple modes of transport to food outlets. Greater engagement with the food supply may dispel many of the food anxieties affluent consumers are experiencing.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies are considered revolutionary because they could fundamentally change the way products are designed. Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is a metal based AM process with significant and growing potential for the manufacture of aerospace components. Traditionally a material needs to be listed in the Metallic Materials Properties Development and Standardization (MMPDS) handbook if it is to be considered certified. However, this requires a considerable amount of test data to be generated on the materials mechanical properties. Therefore, the MMPDS certification process does not lend itself easily to the certification of AM components as the final component can have similar mechanical properties to wrought alloys combined with the defects associated with traditional casting and welding technologies. These defects can substantially decrease the fatigue life of a fabricated component. The primary purpose of this investigation was to study the fatigue behaviour of as-built Ti-6Al-4V (Ti64) samples. Fatigue tests were performed on the Ti-6Al-4V specimens built using SLM with a variety of layer thicknesses and build (vertical or horizontal) directions. Fractography revealed the presence of a range of manufacturing defects located at or near the surface of the specimens. The experimental results indicated that Lack-of-Fusion (LOF) defects were primarily responsible for fatigue crack initiation. The reduction in fatigue life appeared to be affected by the location, size and shape of the LOF defect.

This paper presents a simple approach to quantify the effect of initial soil density on the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) of unsaturated soils. This approach is based on an incremental relationship between the degree of saturation and the initial void ratio, which satisfies the intrinsic constraints for three-phase porous materials. The incremental relationship can be incorporated into existing SWCC equations to model the water retention behaviour for deformable soils. Only one additional parameter is introduced, which can be conveniently calibrated by way of conventional water retention tests. The SWCCs for the same soil at different initial void ratios can be found using the proposed approach. The proposed approach is validated against experimental data from drying tests for both compacted and reconstituted soils.

For 5 days, eight well-trained cyclists consumed a random order of a high-carbohydrate (CHO) diet (9.6 g. kg(-1). day(-1) CHO, 0.7 g. kg(-1). day(-1) fat; HCHO) or an isoenergetic high-fat diet (2.4 g. kg(-1). day(-1) CHO, 4 g. kg(-1). day(-1) fat; Fat-adapt) while undertaking supervised training. On day 6, subjects ingested high CHO and rested before performance testing on day 7 [2 h cycling at 70% maximal O(2) consumption (SS) + 7 kJ/kg time trial (TT)]. With Fat-adapt, 5 days of high-fat diet reduced respiratory exchange ratio (RER) during cycling at 70% maximal O(2) consumption; this was partially restored by 1 day of high CHO [0.90 +/- 0.01 vs. 0.82 +/- 0.01 (P < 0.05) vs. 0.87 +/- 0.01 (P < 0.05), for day 1, day 6, and day 7, respectively]. Corresponding RER values on HCHO trial were [0. 91 +/- 0.01 vs. 0.88 +/- 0.01 (P < 0.05) vs. 0.93 +/- 0.01 (P < 0.05)]. During SS, estimated fat oxidation increased [94 +/- 6 vs. 61 +/- 5 g (P < 0.05)], whereas CHO oxidation decreased [271 +/- 16 vs. 342 +/- 14 g (P < 0.05)] for Fat-adapt compared with HCHO. Tracer-derived estimates of plasma glucose uptake revealed no differences between treatments, suggesting muscle glycogen sparing accounted for reduced CHO oxidation. Direct assessment of muscle glycogen utilization showed a similar order of sparing (260 +/- 26 vs. 360 +/- 43 mmol/kg dry wt; P = 0.06). TT performance was 30.73 +/- 1.12 vs. 34.17 +/- 2.48 min for Fat-adapt and HCHO (P = 0.21). These data show significant metabolic adaptations with a brief period of high-fat intake, which persist even after restoration of CHO availability. However, there was no evidence of a clear benefit of fat adaptation to cycling performance.

Efficient on-chip molecule and bio-agent detection can be achieved by accessing strong molecular absorption lines in the mid-infrared, but it requires high output power broadband mid-IR sources. Here, we report supercontinuum generation in an air-clad Si0.6Ge0.4/Si waveguide that emits a broad spectrum spanning from 3.0 μm to 8.5 μm. These waveguides have anomalous dispersion and low propagation loss (&lt;0.4 dB/cm) in the mid-IR, which leads to a supercontinuum output with a high average power of more than 10 mW on-chip. The realization of broadband mid-IR sources with high spectral brightness makes the SiGe-on-Si platform promising for a wide range of applications.

Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) is one of the most abundant CYP enzymes in the human liver. CYP2C9 metabolizes more than 100 therapeutic drugs, including tolbutamide, glyburide, diclofenac, celecoxib, torasemide, phenytoin losartan, and S-warfarin). Some natural and herbal compounds are also metabolized by CYP2C9, probably leading to the formation of toxic metabolites. CYP2C9 also plays a role in the metabolism of several endogenous compounds such as steroids, melatonin, retinoids and arachidonic acid. Many CYP2C9 substrates are weak acids, but CYP2C9 also has the capacity to metabolise neutral, highly lipophilic compounds. A number of ligand-based and homology models of CYP2C9 have been reported and this has provided insights into the binding of ligands to the active site of CYP2C9. Data from the site-directed mutagenesis studies have revealed that a number of residues (e.g. Arg97, Phe110, Val113, Phe114, Arg144, Ser286, Asn289, Asp293 and Phe476) play an important role in ligand binding and determination of substrate specificity. The resolved crystal structures of CYP2C9 have confirmed the importance of these residues in substrate recognition and ligand orientation. CYP2C9 is activated by dapsone and its analogues and R-lansoprazole in a stereo-specific and substrate-dependent manner, probably through binding to the active site and inducing positive cooperativity. CYP2C9 is subject to induction by rifampin, phenobarbital, and dexamethasone, indicating the involvement of pregnane X receptor, constitutive androstane receptor and glucocorticoid receptor in the regulation of CYP2C9. A number of compounds have been found to inhibit CYP2C9 and this may provide an explanation for some clinically important drug interactions. Tienilic acid, suprofen and silybin are mechanism-based inhibitors of CYP2C9. Given the critical role of CYP2C9 in drug metabolism and the presence of polymorphisms, it is important to identify drug candidates as potential substrates, inducer or inhibitors of CYP2C9 in drug development and drug discovery scientists should develop drugs with minimal interactions with this enzyme. Further studies are warranted to explore the molecular determinants for ligand-CYP2C9 binding and the structure-activity relationships.

Purpose – The aim of this study is to discover the critical success factors (CSFs) for the Halal supply chain management because this area is gaining recognition. Plus, the aim is to use the CSFs for future research. Design/methodology/approach – The study is based on the application of CSFs on the Halal supply chain. A comprehensive literature review is undertaken to discover the CSFs of conventional supply chain and to apply it to the Halal supply chain. Findings – Government support, transportation planning, information technology, human resource management, collaborative relationship, Halal certification and Halal traceability are the CSFs for the Halal supply chain. Research limitations/implications – This study only discusses the CSFs related to the Halal supply chain and ignoring other forms of Halal businesses. This study only concerns on English literatures and omit other languages. The study lacks empirical evidence and future research should be done to test the CSFs relevancy. Practical implications – This study addresses stakeholders of the Halal supply chain CSFs, which have not been fully understand and appreciated. Originality/value – CSFs concept has never been attempted on the Halal supply chain. Therefore, this study appraises the concept of CSFs and adds value to the knowledge on the Halal supply chain.

This paper proposes a new water retention model for unsaturated soils, which takes into account capillary condensation of adsorbed water. In this model, the degree of saturation of a soil is separated into that based on capillary water and that based on adsorbed water. Through analysis of a partially saturated two-cylinder system, a new shear strength criterion for unsaturated soils is proposed, in which only the degree of saturation based on capillary water contributes to the variation of shear strength with suction. The proposed shear strength criterion is justified against thermodynamic principles and is compared against existing criteria in the literature, which shows that it provides a much improved prediction of the experimental data for a wide range of suction values.

Digital data is an increasing and continual presence across the sites, activities and relationships of everyday life. In this article we explore what data presence means for the ways that the everyday is organised, sensed, and anticipated. While digital data studies have demonstrated how data is deeply entangled with the way in which everyday life is lived out and valued, at the same time our relationships with data are riddled with anxieties or small niggles or tricky trade-offs and their use is often chaotic and muddled, part of the inevitable uncertainty about what will happen next. If the presence of data is part of the environments we inhabit, this raises the question of how and why data is valuable to us and what forms of hope and trust enable this value to further develop.