Sergeev Institute of Environmental Geoscience

Permafrost warming has the potential to amplify global climate change, because when frozen sediments thaw it unlocks soil organic carbon. Yet to date, no globally consistent assessment of permafrost temperature change has been compiled. Here we use a global data set of permafrost temperature time series from the Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost to evaluate temperature change across permafrost regions for the period since the International Polar Year (2007-2009). During the reference decade between 2007 and 2016, ground temperature near the depth of zero annual amplitude in the continuous permafrost zone increased by 0.39 ± 0.15 °C. Over the same period, discontinuous permafrost warmed by 0.20 ± 0.10 °C. Permafrost in mountains warmed by 0.19 ± 0.05 °C and in Antarctica by 0.37 ± 0.10 °C. Globally, permafrost temperature increased by 0.29 ± 0.12 °C. The observed trend follows the Arctic amplification of air temperature increase in the Northern Hemisphere. In the discontinuous zone, however, ground warming occurred due to increased snow thickness while air temperature remained statistically unchanged.

Abstract The results of the International Permafrost Association's International Polar Year Thermal State of Permafrost (TSP) project are presented based on field measurements from Russia during the IPY years (2007–09) and collected historical data. Most ground temperatures measured in existing and new boreholes show a substantial warming during the last 20 to 30 years. The magnitude of the warming varied with location, but was typically from 0.5°C to 2°C at the depth of zero annual amplitude. Thawing of Little Ice Age permafrost is ongoing at many locations. There are some indications that the late Holocene permafrost has begun to thaw at some undisturbed locations in northeastern Europe and northwest Siberia. Thawing of permafrost is most noticeable within the discontinuous permafrost domain. However, permafrost in Russia is also starting to thaw at some limited locations in the continuous permafrost zone. As a result, a northward displacement of the boundary between continuous and discontinuous permafrost zones was observed. This data set will serve as a baseline against which to measure changes of near‐surface permafrost temperatures and permafrost boundaries, to validate climate model scenarios, and for temperature reanalysis. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Measurements at 400 campaign-style GPS points and another 14 continuously recording stations in central Asia define variations in their velocities both along and across the Kyrgyz and neighboring parts of Tien Shan. They show that at the longitude of Kyrgyzstan the Tarim Basin converges with Eurasia at 20 2 mm/yr, nearly two thirds of the total convergence rate between India and Eurasia at this longitude. This high rate suggests that the Tien Shan has grown into a major mountain range only late in the evolution of the India-Eurasia collision. Most of the convergence between Tarim and Eurasia within the upper crust of the Tien Shan presumably occurs by slip on faults on the edges of and within the belt, but 1-3 mm/yr of convergence is absorbed farther north, at the Dzungarian Alatau and at a lower rate with the Kazakh platform to the west. The Tarim Basin is thrust beneath the Tien Shan at 4-7 mm/yr. With respect to Eurasia, the Ferghana Valley rotates counterclockwise at 0.7Myr -1 about an axis at the southwest end of the valley. Thus, GPS data place a bound of 4 mm/yr on the rate of crustal shortening across the Chatkal and neighboring ranges on the northwest margin of the Ferghana Valley, and they limit the present-day slip rate on the right-lateral Talas-Ferghana fault to less than 2 mm/yr. GPS measurements corroborate geologic evidence indicating that the northern margin of the Pamir overthrusts the Alay Valley and require a rate of at least 10 and possibly 15 mm/yr.

The results of reflection CMP seismic profiling of the Central Tien Shan in the meridional tract 75–76° E from Lake Song-Köl in Kyrgyzstan to the town of Kashgar in China are considered. The seismic section demonstrating complex heterogeneous structure of the Earth’s crust and reflecting its near-horizontal delamination with vertical and inclined zones of compositional and structural differentiation was constructed from processing of initial data of reflection CMP seismic profiling, earthquake converted-wave method (ECWM), and seismic tomography. The most important is the large zone of underthrusting of the Tarim Massif beneath the Tien Shan.

The genus Archaeoellipsoides Horodyski & Donaldson comprises large (up to 135 micrometers long) ellipsoidal and rod-shaped microfossils commonly found in silicified peritidal carbonates of Mesoproterozoic age. Based on morphometric and sedimentary comparisons with the akinetes of modern bloom-forming Anabaena species, Archaeoellipsoides is interpreted as the fossilized remains of akinetes produced by planktic heterocystous cyanobacteria. These fossils set a minimum date for the evolution of derived cyanobacteria capable of marked cell differentiation, and they corroborate geochemical evidence indicating that atmospheric oxygen levels were well above 1% of present day levels 1,500 million years ago.

Abundant and diverse microfossils from shales of the uppermost Ura Formation, central Siberia, document early to middle Ediacaran life along the southeastern margin of the Siberian Platform. The Ura Formation is well exposed in a series of sections in the Lena River basin but the best microfossil assemblages come from a locality along the Ura River. Here, the uppermost twenty meters of the formation contain diverse microfossils exceptionally well preserved as organic compressions. Fossils include nearly two dozen morphospecies of large acanthomorphic microfossils attributable to the Ediacaran Complex Acanthomorph Palynoflora (ECAP), a distinctive assemblage known elsewhere only from lower, but not lowermost, to middle Ediacaran rocks. Discovery of ECAP in strata previously considered Mesoproterozoic through Cryogenian confirms inferences from chemostratigraphy, dramatically changing stratigraphic interpretation of sedimentary successions and Proterozoic tectonics on the Siberian Platform. Systematic paleontology is reported for 36 taxa (five described informally) assigned to 23 genera of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic microfossils. One new genus and two new species are proposed: Ancorosphaeridium magnum n. gen. n. sp. and A. minor n. gen. n. sp.

Abstract. We describe an approach to find an initial approximation to the thermal properties of soil horizons. This technique approximates thermal conductivity, porosity, unfrozen water content curves in horizons where no direct temperature measurements are available. To determine physical properties of ground material, optimization-based inverse techniques are employed to fit the simulated temperatures to the measured ones. Two major ingredients of these techniques are an algorithm to compute the soil temperature dynamics and a procedure to find an initial approximation to the ground properties. In this article we show how to determine the initial approximation to the physical properties and present a new finite element discretization of the heat equation with phase change to calculate the temperature dynamics in soil. We successfully apply the proposed algorithm to recover the soil properties for the Happy Valley site in Alaska using one-year temperature dynamics. The determined initial approximation is utilized to simulate the temperature dynamics over several consecutive years; the difference between simulated and measured temperatures lies within uncertainties of measurements.

A comparative assessment of heavy metal and metalloids pollution in soils and groundwater was carried out at the key sites in two megacities, i.e., Hyderabad (India) and Moscow (Russia), as a part of Indo-Russian collaborative research project. The geological structure, hydrogeological conditions and contamination of soils and groundwater were studied at the key sites and contaminants migration in the vadoze zone and groundwater was simulated. The results of statistical analysis prove that at the key site in Hyderabad the elevated concentrations of some chemical elements leading to soil pollution with heavy metals (i.e. Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) are related to technogenic and industrial activities. The modeling of ground- and surface water contamination showed that the area of sewage influence on groundwater is limited and that there is no hazard of river water contamination in the long-term perspective1. The fill ground and ancient alluvium at the key site in Mоscow manifest the multi-element (Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Mn, Cr, As, oil products) contamination of soil, which is substantially variable both by depth and area. The modeling results permitted assessing the hazard of contaminated soils as the secondary long-acting source of groundwater contamination. The geological structure and hydrogeological differences between the key sites determined the use of different models for the investigation of heavy metals migration in the vadoze zone and in the aquifers.

Abstract CLAMP (Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program) is a powerful paleoclimate proxy with the ability to yield quantitative data on past temperatures, precipitation, growing season length, and humidity, as well as enthalpy (a property of a parcel of air that is useful in studies of paleoaltimetry). Commonly quoted uncertainties in CLAMP predictions relate to the statistical uncertainty inherent in the combined quality of the modern calibration data sets and the relationship of foliar architecture to the various climate parameters. This minimum uncertainty assumes that the fossil assemblage represents faithfully the foliar physiognomy of the source vegetation. Taphonomic processes degrade this physiognomic fidelity. Differential selection for size, shape, and species composition during transport and post-depositional processes biases the physiognomic profile of the fossil assemblage. The sensitivity of CLAMP precision to taphonomic filtering was assessed empirically using a modern data set from the Crimean Peninsula as a proxy fossil site. Elimination of leaf margin, apex, base, size, and shape character-state categories, singly and in combination, changed the predictive capability of CLAMP. Loss of margin characters had the greatest effect, particularly on temperature-related variables (mean annual, warm-month mean and cold-month mean temperatures, length of the growing season, and enthalpy). Taphonomic selection against large leaf sizes had little effect even on moisture-related estimates (precipitation during the growing season, mean monthly growing season precipitation, precipitation during the three wettest and driest months, relative humidity). Loss of taphonomically sensitive characters (apex, base, or shape) also had little effect on CLAMP predictions.

Land-based transport corridors and related infrastructure are increasingly extending into and across the Arctic in support of resource development and population growth, causing large-scale cumulative changes to northern socio-ecological systems. These changes include the increased mobility of people, goods and resources, and environmental impacts on landscapes and ecosystems as the human footprint reaches remote, unindustrialized regions. Arctic climate change is also generating new challenges for the construction and maintenance of these transport systems, requiring adaptive engineering solutions as well as community resilience. In this review article, we consider the complex entanglements between humans, the environment, and land transportation infrastructure in the North and illustrate these interrelations by way of seven case studies: the Baikal–Amur Mainline, Bovanenkovo Railway, Alaska–Canada Highway, Inuvik–Tuktoyatuk Highway, Alaska Railroad, Hudson Bay Railway, and proposed railways on Baffin Island, Canada. As new infrastructure is built and anticipated across the circumpolar North, there is an urgent need for an integrated socio-ecological approach to impact assessment. This would include full consideration of Indigenous knowledge and concerns, collaboration with local communities and user groups in assessment, planning and monitoring, and evaluation of alternative engineering designs to contend with the impacts of climate change in the decades ahead.

The process of adsorption of water molecules by silicate surfaces of clay minerals is considered. The process leads to the formation of nano-thickness films of adsorbed water. An epitaxial mechanism of nanofilm formation is considered, consisting in the growth of structured hydrate layers under the effect of oxygen and hydroxyl surfaces of clay minerals. The difference between the sizes of hexagonal cells of the solid surface and the forming water film deforms hydrogen bonds and produces inner stress in both the film structure and the mineral lattice. The latter is reflected in the changing size of montmorillonite cell along the b-axis. The thickness of the newly formed adsorption water layer is shown to be controlled by the degree of hydrogen bond deformation, the stress developed inside the nanofilm, the cell size, and the rigidity (strength) of the mineral structure. The deformation of hydrogen bonds and water nanofilm structure determines its specific properties, i.e., wedging pressure, high viscosity, low temperatures of water freezing, dielectric conductivity, etc.

We investigate biogeophysical processes that cause differential frost heave in nonsorted circles north of the Alaska's Brooks Range. The main objective is the development of a numerical thermo‐mechanical model of a nonsorted circle. The presented model includes mass, momentum and energy conservation laws for water, ice and soil. We applied this model to simulate differential frost heave at the Franklin Bluffs site and obtained a good quantitative agreement with measured dynamics of soil temperature, water content, and frost heave. For other locations such as at the Sagwon Hills and Howe Island sites we obtained qualitative agreement with frost‐heave measurements. Sensitivity analysis shows that the most active development of differential frost heave occurs for nonsorted circles within waterlogged areas, as observed in field measurements. For well drained sites, model results and field observations show that the differential frost heave is much smaller in magnitude comparing to that of the water‐logged sites. Sensitivity of the model to alternation of the vegetation cover shows that a strong heterogeneity in the vegetation cover promotes active development of the differential frost heave. For nonsorted circles with vegetation on top of the circle, the computed differential heave is less pronounced. The radius of the nonsorted circle influences the magnitude of the frost heave. The computed maximum frost heave in the center of the circle corresponds to 1–1.5 meter diameter nonsorted circles. For nonsorted circles with larger diameters, computed frost heave in the center of a circle is smaller compared to the heave at the circle circumference.

BACKGROUND: Reports in the recent experimental literature have provided contradicting results in different animal species regarding the efficacy of IV lipid emulsion (ILE) in the reversal of cardiovascular and central nervous system symptoms of local anesthetic and other lipophilic drug overdoses. In particular, ILE seemed to be effective in rats, rabbits, dogs, and humans, but not in swine, for which it not only failed to reverse the adverse effects of anesthetics, but the animals also developed a generalized cutaneous mottling or a dusky appearance immediately after ILE, suggestive of another type of toxicity. The latter symptoms arise in complement (C) activation-related pseudoallergy, a hypersensitivity reaction to particulate drugs and agents. METHODS: Ten Yorkshire swine (15-20 kg) were sedated with ketamine and anesthetized with isoflurane. ILE 1.5 and 5 mL/kg 20% was administered via the ear vein while pulmonary arterial pressure, systemic arterial blood pressure, electrocardiogram, and end-tidal CO2 were recorded continuously. Thromboxane was measured in blood collected at baseline and 2 and 10 minutes after injections. Complement activation by lipid emulsion was also assessed in vitro with soluble terminal complement complex (SC5b-9) and sheep red blood cell assays. RESULTS: Significant increases were observed in the pulmonary pressure (median [interquartile range]) within minutes after the administration of ILE, both at doses 1.5 and 5 mL/kg (15 [12-16.5] to 18.5 [16-20] mm Hg, P = 0.0058 and 15.5 [13-17.25] to 39.5 [30.5-48.5], respectively). The systemic arterial blood pressure increased, and the heart rate decreased after both injections. Thromboxane B2 concentration (median [interquartile range]) in the blood plasma increased from a baseline of 617.3 [412.4-920] to 1132 [597.9-1417] pg/mL (P = 0.0055) and from 1276 [1200-2581] to 4046 [2946-8442] pg/mL (P = 0.0017) after the administration of 1.5 and 5 mL/kg ILE, respectively. Intralipid did not cause in vitro complement activation in human serum. CONCLUSIONS: ILE causes clinically significant hemodynamic changes in pigs, in concert with significant increases in the plasma thromboxane concentration. However, the in vitro tests did not confirm involvement of the complement system in human sera, leaving the underlying mechanism of these findings in doubt. Nonetheless, the observed hemodynamic and biochemical effects of ILE serve as a caveat that the pig is not an ideal model for the study of interventions involving ILE.

Permafrost in the NE European Russian Arctic is suffering from some of the highest degradation rates in the world. The rising mean annual air temperature causes warming permafrost, the increase in the active layer thickness (ALT), and the reduction of the permafrost extent. These phenomena represent a serious risk for infrastructures and human activities. ALT characterization is important to estimate the degree of permafrost degradation. We used a multidisciplinary approach to investigate the ALT distribution in the Khanovey railway station area (close to Vorkuta, Arctic Russia), where thaw subsidence leads to railroad vertical deformations up to 2.5 cm/year. Geocryological surveys, including vegetation analysis and underground temperature measurements, together with the faster and less invasive electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) geophysical method, were used to investigate the frozen/unfrozen ground settings between the railroad and the Vorkuta River. Borehole stratigraphy and landscape microzonation indicated a massive prevalence of clay and silty clay sediments at shallow depths in this area. The complex refractive index method (CRIM) was used to integrate and quantitatively validate the results. The data analysis showed landscape heterogeneity and maximum ALT and permafrost thickness values of about 7 and 50 m, respectively. The active layer was characterized by resistivity values ranging from about 30 to 100 Ωm, whereas the underlying permafrost resistivity exceeded 200 Ωm, up to a maximum of about 10 kΩm. In the active layer, there was a coexistence of frozen and unfrozen unconsolidated sediments, where the ice content estimated using the CRIM ranged from about 0.3 – 0.4 to 0.9. Moreover, the transition zone between the active layer base and the permafrost table, whose resistivity values ranged from 100 to 200 Ωm for this kind of sediments, showed ice contents ranging from 0.9 to 1.0. Taliks were present in some depressions of the study area, characterized by minimum resistivity values lower than 10 Ωm. This thermokarst activity was more active close to the railroad because of the absence of insulating vegetation. This study contributes to better understanding of the spatial variability of cryological conditions, and the result is helpful in addressing engineering solutions for the stability of the railway.

Disaster and climate risks result from a complex interaction between hazard, exposure, and vulnerability in a broad context defined by socioeconomic, political, and ecological factors. To better understand the risk and manage it more effectively, we need to collect, store, analyse, and use risk-informed data. We identified challenges and opportunities for harnessing risk-informed data for disaster and climate resilience. The framework is inspired by the FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable) and CARE (collective, authority to control, responsibility and ethics) principles to discuss opportunities how data could be available to inform risk-informed decision-making in climate and disaster risk management. Looking ahead, data could be developed and integrated with societal needs and participation. The use of data for risk management necessitates a common definition of risk to ensure a comparable research and development process. The world is shifting from a “for-profit” to a “for-benefit” operating model, which needs a Fifth Industrial Revolution driven by and for data for the benefit of society.

Abstract Recent years of increasing air temperature in the Arctic have led to a significant increase in the rate of retreat of permafrost coast, which has threatened livelihoods and infrastructure in these areas. The Kara Sea hosts more than 25% of the total Arctic coastline. However, little is known about how coastal erosion in the Kara Sea may have changed through time, and the climatic and environmental drivers remain unclear. Here we study coastal dynamics along a 4‐km stretch of permafrost and sea‐ice‐affected coastline in south‐west Baydaratskaya Bay of the Kara Sea, western Siberia, between 2005 and 2016, by using handheld differential GPS mapping and satellite imagery. We identified temporal and spatial variations in the retreat rates, ranging between 1.0 (+0.1/−0.6) and 1.9 (+0.7/−1.3) m/yr over the studied coastline during 2005–2016. We also made ground temperature measurements, subsurface resistivity measurements and estimates of wave energy flux of wind‐driven ocean waves, to investigate the dominant climatic factors influencing the observed retreat rates through time. We found that wind‐driven wave activity during sea‐ice‐free days influences the magnitude of coastal retreat in the study area, while recent temperature rise has contributed less to enhancing coastal retreat during the study period. This suggests that the amount of eroded sediment and the associated release of nutrient to the nearshore zone are controlled by the magnitude of wave activity, which may influence infrastructure along the permafrost coast and marine ecosystems in the proximal ocean.

Landslide is a major geological hazard, which poses serious threat to human population and various infrastructures. Landslides occur very often together with other natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods or snow melting and volcanoes that play role of triggering mechanism for landslides. Mountainous areas are vulnerable to landslides and have also been affected by earthquakes. Mountainous and coastal areas are the most affected regions. Landslides cause huge damage in the world and kill many people each year. Paper is devoted to landslides research on the base of risk analysis, assessment, management and reduction concept. Landslide Risk Management is seen as a series of events leading to landslides risk reduction and avoiding. It includes landslides monitoring, landslide forecast, engineering works, slopes strengthen, insurance and others. Paper also considered India, China and Russia case studies including Kolka disaster on 20 September 2002 and other related disasters. Kazbek volcanic center is characterized by the complex interrelationship of various hazardous geological processes. Disasters of 2002 and 2014 caused by icerock fall govern importance of investigation of the area. The network recorded a collapse of the mass of ice and rocks in the region of the Devdorak glacier on May 17, 2014 and the movement of the formed stoneice avalanche. In India, the Himalayas are prone to landslides, particularly n monsoon season, from months of June to October. Various types of landslides occur in Himalayas, including block slumping, debris flow, debris slide, rock fall, rotational slip and slump. Generally landslides are triggered by heavy or prolonged rainfall. Landslides cause severe damage to lives and property while also causing disruption in communication networks and movement of traffic. Оползни представляет собой серьезную геологическую опасность, создающую угрозу для населения и различных объектов инфраструктуры. Оползни часто сопровождают другие стихийные бедствия, такие как землетрясения, наводнения, таяние снега и вулканические процессы, которые играют роль механизма запуска оползней. Горные районы, пострадавшие от землетрясений также уязвимы для оползней. Горные и прибрежные районы являются наиболее пострадавшими регионами. Во всем мире оползни наносят колоссальный ущерб и влекут за собой человеческие жертвы. Статья посвящена исследованию оползней на основе концепции анализа, оценки, управления и снижения рисков. Управление рисками рассматривается как серия мероприятий, ведущих к снижению и предотвращению риска оползней. Они включают в себя мониторинг оползней, прогноз оползней, инженерные работы, укрепление склонов, страхование и др. Рассмотрены примеры исследований Индии, Китая и России, включая Колкинскую катастрофу 20 сентября 2002 года и другие связанные с ней катастрофы. Казбекский вулканический центр характеризуется сложной взаимосвязью различных опасных геологических процессов. Бедствия 2002 и 2014 гг., вызванные падением ледяных скал, определяют важность исследования местности. Сеть зафиксировала обвал массы льда и камней в районе ледника Девдорак 17 мая 2014 года и движение образовавшейся ледовокаменной лавины. В Индии Гималаи подвержены оползням, особенно в сезон муссонов, с июня по октябрь. В Гималаях встречаются различные типы оползней, в том числе оползни блоков, обломки, оползни, обвалы, проскальзывание и спад. Обычно сход оползней вызван сильными или продолжительными осадками. Оползни наносят серьезный социальный ущерб, вызывают сбои в различных сетях и движении транспорта.

Recent years have seen increased attention given to radon from two scientific directions. After neglecting radon as an earthquake precursor in the 1990s, it has become the subject of discussions in earthquake-forecast papers due to growing networks of radon monitoring in different countries, particularly the technologies of real-time radon measurements where gamma spectrometers are of great interest as sources of 222Rn identification. The second fast-developing direction involves radon in Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling (LAIC) models as a source of boundary layer ionization. Here we address the second topic, which is not connected with the earthquake forecast problems, namely, the role of air ionization by radon as a source of the Global Electric Circuit (GEC) modification. In this publication, we try to unite all of these problems to present a more complex view of radon as an important element in our environment. Special attention is paid to the dependence of radon variability on environmental conditions.

In the first decade of the 21th century, the findings of a new invader, the American rotifer, Kellicottia bostoniensis (Rousselet, 1908), has become more frequent in Russia. By 2015 K. bostoniensis had been detected in more than 40 different waterbodies and watercourses of European part of Russia. American rotifer is a widely spread and common species in forest lakes and rivers of the Baltic Sea basin, Volga-Baltic watershed; in the Volga River basin it has spread southward to 55° N (lakes of the Oka and Pra rivers) and eastward to 45° E (the Kerzhenets River, Cheboksary Reservoir basin). The rotifers inhabit small (<3 km2) and large (>200 km2), shallow (<1 m) and deep (>20 m) waterbodies with a trophy range from oligo- to eutrophy. In Russia K. bostoniensis occurs in a wide range of color of water (30–680 degrees Pt–Co-scale) compared to waterbodies of Western Europe. The rotifer is tolerant to temperature regime and oxygen concentrations in water. In the hypolimnion of stratified lakes, K. bostoniensis reaches high abundance (>100000 ind./m3) at a very low concentration of dissolved oxygen (2.5 mg/L or about 20% of saturation) and water temperature of 5–12°С. The invader and aboriginal species K. longispina coexisted in deep lakes and deep parts of reservoirs (the depth more than 5 m); in shallow lakes only K. bostoniensis was found. On the contrary, in most parts of large reservoirs of the Upper Volga only K. longispina was recorded. The possibility and the direction of transfer of the rotifer by swimming birds are discussed.

The results of longstanding GPS measurements in the northwestern part of Central Asia are discussed. These results impose certain constraints for modeling of intraplate tectonic processes. In the territory covered by observations, the velocity vectors of recent motions of the Earth’s surface relative to the stable portion of Eurasia decrease northward. The plane field of velocities, which rules out the development of extension zones, indicates the impossibility of the mountain building driven by ascending mantle flows beneath the lithosphere of these regions. The nonuniform spatial distribution of the motions is suggestive of the discrete character of the Earth’s crust and its deformation. The crust is brittle, at least in its upper part, and capable of breaking into blocks. The blocks, which move at different velocities, interact with one another and change their original orientation and position, while experiencing independent deformations. This phenomenon has been exemplified in the Tarim Block and the Tien Shan. Within the limits of the constraints imposed by the GPS measurements, the mechanism of intracontinental mountain building related to the lateral flow of asthenospheric material and to the drag of the overlying lithospheric layers is discussed. This mechanism springs from Argand’s ideas [2, 29] and the plate tectonic concept [10, 23]. The upper-mantle convective flow in the direction of the Indian Plate’s motion was the main cause of the crustal deformation. The detachment of the lithospheric mantle from the Indian Plate approximately 25 Ma ago and its subduction beneath the Himalayas and Tibet, along with simultaneous ascent of the remaining crust and uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, allowed the mantle flow to spread far northward beneath the Asian continent. This process is accompanied by consecutive separation and sinking of the cooling asthenospheric material over the entire area from the Himalayas to Siberia as the subcrustal material cools. As a result, the flow velocity decreases, the roof of the active flow plunges, and the lithosphere becomes thicker. The motion and deformation of the lithospheric layers dragged by deep flow cannot follow the asthenospheric flow strictly, owing to the rigidity of the layers. Therefore, a difference of tangential velocities originates between the flow and the lithosphere, thus giving rise to horizontal shear stresses. These stresses affect the overlying lithospheric layers, including the crustal ones, and bring about their drag and tectonic delamination. Simultaneously, the decreasing velocity in the direction of the mantle flow results in bending of the lithospheric layers that is accompanied by local warping of the crust and its stacking and fragmentation into blocks. The different velocities of block motions lead to their mechanical interactions. This scenario of intracontinental mountain building allows an explanation of the many specific features of tectonic processes and orogeny in within-plate mountainous regions.