State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents

The Asian longhorned beetle (ALB), Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky), and citrus longhorned beetle (CLB), Anoplophora chinensis (Forster) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), are polyphagous xylophages native to Asia and are capable of killing healthy trees. ALB outbreaks began in China in the 1980s, following major reforestation programs that used ALB-susceptible tree species. No regional CLB outbreaks have been reported in Asia. ALB was first intercepted in international trade in 1992, mostly in wood packaging material; CLB was first intercepted in 1980, mostly in live plants. ALB is now established in North America, and both species are established in Europe. After each infestation was discovered, quarantines and eradication programs were initiated to protect high-risk tree genera such as Acer, Aesculus, Betula, Populus, Salix, and Ulmus. We discuss taxonomy, diagnostics, native range, bionomics, damage, host plants, pest status in their native range, invasion history and management, recent research, and international efforts to prevent new introductions.

Phylogeny and characteristics of ruminants Ruminants are a diverse group of mammals that includes families containing well-known taxa such as deer, cows, and goats. However, their evolutionary relationships have been contentious, as have the origins of their distinctive digestive systems and headgear, including antlers and horns (see the Perspective by Ker and Yang). To understand the relationships among ruminants, L. Chen et al. sequenced 44 species representing 6 families and performed a phylogenetic analysis. From this analysis, they were able to resolve the phylogeny of many genera and document incomplete lineage sorting among major clades. Interestingly, they found evidence for large population reductions among many taxa starting at approximately 100,000 years ago, coinciding with the migration of humans out of Africa. Examining the bony appendages on the head—the so-called headgear—Wang et al. describe specific evolutionary changes in the ruminants and identify selection on cancer-related genes that may function in antler development in deer. Finally, Lin et al. take a close look at the reindeer genome and identify the genetic basis of adaptations that allow reindeer to survive in the harsh conditions of the Arctic. Science , this issue p. eaav6202 , p. eaav6335 , p. eaav6312 ; see also p. 1130

The codling moth Cydia pomonella, a major invasive pest of pome fruit, has spread around the globe in the last half century. We generated a chromosome-level scaffold assembly including the Z chromosome and a portion of the W chromosome. This assembly reveals the duplication of an olfactory receptor gene (OR3), which we demonstrate enhances the ability of C. pomonella to exploit kairomones and pheromones in locating both host plants and mates. Genome-wide association studies contrasting insecticide-resistant and susceptible strains identify hundreds of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) potentially associated with insecticide resistance, including three SNPs found in the promoter of CYP6B2. RNAi knockdown of CYP6B2 increases C. pomonella sensitivity to two insecticides, deltamethrin and azinphos methyl. The high-quality genome assembly of C. pomonella informs the genetic basis of its invasiveness, suggesting the codling moth has distinctive capabilities and adaptive potential that may explain its worldwide expansion.

Phase change in locusts is an ideal model for studying the genetic architectures and regulatory mechanisms associated with phenotypic plasticity. The recent development of genomic and metabolomic tools and resources has furthered our understanding of the molecular basis of phase change in locusts. Thousands of phase-related genes and metabolites have been highlighted using large-scale expressed sequence tags, microarrays, high-throughput transcriptomic sequences, or metabolomic approaches. However, only several key factors, including genes, metabolites, and pathways, have a critical role in phase transition in locusts. For example, CSP (chemosensory protein) and takeout genes, the dopamine pathway, protein kinase A, and carnitines were found to be involved in the regulation of behavioral phase change and gram-negative bacteria-binding proteins in prophylaxical disease resistance of gregarious locusts. Epigenetic mechanisms including small noncoding RNAs and DNA methylation have been implicated. We review these new advances in the molecular basis of phase change in locusts and present some challenges that need to be addressed.

In recent years, an invasive mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) has attacked cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum L.) in Pakistan and India, causing severe economic losses. This polyphagous pest was probably introduced accidentally from North America. Infestations have broken out suddenly and spread rapidly. Seasonal and annual population growth data of P. solenopsis from nine locations in its native range in the U.S.A., and the distribution of the mealybug worldwide, were analyzed using the CLIMEX model. This indicated that tropical regions worldwide were highly suitable for P. solenopsis . Its potential distribution was limited by cold in high latitudes and altitudes, and dryness in northern Africa, inland Australia and parts of the Middle East. CLIMEX was used to predict where P. solenopsis might establish, and to estimate the potential threat to cotton yield in Asia. The key limiting factors were low precipitation as well as minimum temperatures in northern areas. When irrigation was factored into the simulation, the potential distribution of P. solenopsis expanded dramatically, indicating that P. solenopsis presents a great economic threat to cotton in Asia and other parts of the world.

The origination of new genes contributes to phenotypic evolution in humans. Two major challenges in the study of new genes are the inference of gene ages and annotation of their protein-coding potential. To tackle these challenges, we created GenTree, an integrated online database that compiles age inferences from three major methods together with functional genomic data for new genes. Genome-wide comparison of the age inference methods revealed that the synteny-based pipeline (SBP) is most suited for recently duplicated genes, whereas the protein-family-based methods are useful for ancient genes. For SBP-dated primate-specific protein-coding genes (PSGs), we performed manual evaluation based on published PSG lists and showed that SBP generated a conservative data set of PSGs by masking less reliable syntenic regions. After assessing the coding potential based on evolutionary constraint and peptide evidence from proteomic data, we curated a list of 254 PSGs with different levels of protein evidence. This list also includes 41 candidate misannotated pseudogenes that encode primate-specific short proteins. Coexpression analysis showed that PSGs are preferentially recruited into organs with rapidly evolving pathways such as spermatogenesis, immune response, mother-fetus interaction, and brain development. For brain development, primate-specific KRAB zinc-finger proteins (KZNFs) are specifically up-regulated in the mid-fetal stage, which may have contributed to the evolution of this critical stage. Altogether, hundreds of PSGs are either recruited to processes under strong selection pressure or to processes supporting an evolving novel organ.

Polyploidy or whole-genome duplication (WGD) is a major event that drastically reshapes genome architecture and is often assumed to be causally associated with organismal innovations and radiations. The 2R hypothesis suggests that two WGD events (1R and 2R) occurred during early vertebrate evolution. However, the timing of the 2R event relative to the divergence of gnathostomes (jawed vertebrates) and cyclostomes (jawless hagfishes and lampreys) is unresolved and whether these WGD events underlie vertebrate phenotypic diversification remains elusive. Here we present the genome of the inshore hagfish, Eptatretus burgeri. Through comparative analysis with lamprey and gnathostome genomes, we reconstruct the early events in cyclostome genome evolution, leveraging insights into the ancestral vertebrate genome. Genome-wide synteny and phylogenetic analyses support a scenario in which 1R occurred in the vertebrate stem-lineage during the early Cambrian, and 2R occurred in the gnathostome stem-lineage, maximally in the late Cambrian-earliest Ordovician, after its divergence from cyclostomes. We find that the genome of stem-cyclostomes experienced an additional independent genome triplication. Functional genomic and morphospace analyses demonstrate that WGD events generally contribute to developmental evolution with similar changes in the regulatory genome of both vertebrate groups. However, appreciable morphological diversification occurred only in the gnathostome but not in the cyclostome lineage, calling into question the general expectation that WGDs lead to leaps of bodyplan complexity.

Abstract Emerald ash borer ( Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) is a major stem borer of ash ( Fraxinus spp.). It is univoltine in Tianjin, while it is semivoltine in Heilongjiang Province, and both univoltine and semivoltine in Changchun, Jilin Province, where the majority is univoltine. The longevity of emerald ash borer adults is 17.2 ± 4.6 days ( n = 45), eggs 9.0 ± 1.1 days ( n = 103), univoltine larvae 308 days, semivoltine larvae 673 days, and pupae 61.2±1.6 days ( n = 45). It takes about 100 days from the time larvae bore into the phloem to when they complete the pupal cell. In a 10‐year‐old velvet ash ( Fraxinus velutina Torr.) plantation in Tianjin, emerald ash borer preferred to oviposit on the regions of boles from 50‐150 cm above ground, accounting for 76.7% of the total girdling. Girdling on the south side of the tree boles accounted for 43.40% of the total girdling. The emerald ash borer population density is higher at the edge of the plantation compared with the center.

Both vertebrates and invertebrates employ alpha-helical antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as an essential component of their innate immune system. However, evolutionary relation of these immune molecules remains unresolved. Venoms, as key weapons of venomous arthropods for prey and defense, receive increasing recognition as an emerging source of such peptides. From a cDNA library prepared from the venom gland of the scorpion Mesobuthus eupeus, clones encoding precursors of two new AMPs, named meucin-13 (IFGAIAGLLKNIF-NH(2)) and meucin-18 (FFGHLFKLATKIIPSLFQ), have been isolated. The precursor of meucins consists of a signal peptide, a mature peptide, and an acidic propeptide, in which dibasic residues as the typical processing signal are located between the mature and propeptide. Meucin-13 is an ortholog of several previously described AMPs from scorpion venom and has also detectable sequence similarity to temporins, a large family of AMPs from frog skin, whereas meucin-18 displays some similarity to AMPs from diverse origin including arthropod venoms, fish mast cells, and frog skins. These two meucin peptides form alpha-helical structure in the presence of 50% trifluoroethanol (TFE), a membrane-mimicking environment, as identified by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. This finding is further verified by their NMR structures that show a typical alpha-helical amphipathic design, a structural prerequisite for cytolytic activity. Meucins exhibit extensive cytolytic effects on both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (gram(+) and gram(-) bacteria, fungi, yeasts, rabbit erythrocytes, and rat dorsal root ganglion cells) at micromolar concentrations. It is remarkable that muecin-18 was 2- to >14-fold more potent than meucin-13 against nearly all the cells tested. Structural differences in hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance and cationic amino acid location between two meucins could account for their differential potency. Despite these differences, commonalities at precursor organization, three-dimensional structure, and biological function suggests that meucins are two evolutionarily related AMPs and likely originated from a common ancestor by gene duplication. Our work presented here also provides new insights into an evolutionary link among AMPs from invertebrates and vertebrates and clues for evolutionary convergence between AMPs and virus fusion domains.

Walnut, Juglans regia L., is known for its insecticidal activities to a range of herbivores and microbes. Isolation and identification of bioactive compounds from walnut is a potential approach for the development of new pesticides. Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the acaricidal activities of green husk extracts of walnut. Bioassay-guided fractionation of petroleum-ether extracts of walnut led to the identification of a common plant-borne fatty acid ester, methyl palmitate (MP), which produced strong acaricidal activity (62.8% mortality) at 1 mg/ml at 24 h. The structure of MP was characterized with infrared spectrum and NMR, and the identification of MP confirmed using an authentic standard on high-performance liquid chromatography. Based on a slide dip bioassay, 10 mg/ml MP provided 97.9% mortality against adults of Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) (Acari: Tetranychidae), whereas mortality against eggs was much lower (57.2%).

) genomes and found that 34% of Arabidopsis protein-coding genes annotated in the Columbia-0 genome do not have any LoF variants. We found that nucleotide diversity, transposable element density, and gene family size are strongly correlated with the presence of LoF variants. Intriguingly, 0.9% of LoF variants with minor allele frequency larger than 0.5% are associated with climate change. In addition, in the Yangtze River basin population, 1% of genes with LoF mutations were under positive selection, providing important insights into the contribution of LoF mutations to adaptation. In particular, our results demonstrate that LoF mutations shape diverse phenotypic traits. Overall, our results highlight the importance of the LoF variants for the adaptation and phenotypic diversification of plants.

RNA silencing is a conserved mechanism that utilizes small RNAs (sRNAs) to direct the regulation of gene expression at the transcriptional or post-transcriptional level. Plants utilizing RNA silencing machinery to defend pathogen infection was first identified in plant-virus interaction and later was observed in distinct plant-pathogen interactions. RNA silencing is not only responsible for suppressing RNA accumulation and movement of virus and viroid, but also facilitates plant immune responses against bacterial, oomycete, and fungal infection. Interestingly, even the same plant sRNA can perform different roles when encounters with different pathogens. On the other side, pathogens counteract by generating sRNAs that directly regulate pathogen gene expression to increase virulence or target host genes to facilitate pathogen infection. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of the characterization and biogenesis of host- and pathogen-derived sRNAs, as well as the different RNA silencing machineries that plants utilize to defend against different pathogens. The functions of these sRNAs in defense and counter-defense and their mechanisms for regulation during different plant-pathogen interactions are also discussed.

A modified QuEChERS method was optimized to determine 66 pesticide residues in spinach using gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection in selected-ion monitoring mode. Graphitized carbon black (GCB) at different levels (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 mg) was used to adsorb the pigments in spinach extracts. Best recoveries with less colored extract samples for all pesticides analyzed were obtained in the presence of 10 mg GCB. Under the optimized condition, analyses of spiked samples were performed at 3 different levels. Correlation coefficients, R2, in the linear range tests were better than 0.99. Average recoveries ranged from 66 to 104%, with the relative standard deviation below 16%. The limits of quantitation ranged from 50 to 250 microg/kg.

In a broad range of taxa, genes can duplicate through an RNA intermediate in a process mediated by retrotransposons (retroposition). In mammals, L1 retrotransposons drive retroposition, but the elements responsible for retroposition in other animals have yet to be identified. Here, we examined young retrocopies from various animals that still retain the sequence features indicative of the underlying retroposition mechanism. In Drosophila melanogaster, we identified and de novo assembled 15 polymorphic retrocopies and found that all retroposed loci are chimeras of internal retrocopies flanked by discontinuous LTR retrotransposons. At the fusion points between the mRNAs and the LTR retrotransposons, we identified shared short similar sequences that suggest the involvement of microsimilarity-dependent template switches. By expanding our approach to mosquito, zebrafish, chicken, and mammals, we identified in all these species recently originated retrocopies with a similar chimeric structure and shared microsimilarities at the fusion points. We also identified several retrocopies that combine the sequences of two or more parental genes, demonstrating LTR-retroposition as a novel mechanism of exon shuffling. Finally, we found that LTR-mediated retrocopies are immediately cotranscribed with their flanking LTR retrotransposons. Transcriptional profiling coupled with sequence analyses revealed that the sense-strand transcription of the retrocopies often lead to the origination of in-frame proteins relative to the parental genes. Overall, our data show that LTR-mediated retroposition is highly conserved across a wide range of animal taxa; combined with previous work from plants and yeast, it represents an ancient and ongoing mechanism continuously shaping gene content evolution in eukaryotes.

Chinese cordyceps, also known as “Dong Chong Xia Cao” in Chinese, which means being worm in winter and herb in summer, is the fruiting body of Ophiocordyceps sinensis developed from the cadaver mum...

Quantitative knowledge about which natural and anthropogenic factors influence the global spread of plague remains sparse. We estimated the worldwide spreading velocity of plague during the Third Pandemic, using more than 200 years of extensive human plague case records and genomic data, and analyzed the association of spatiotemporal environmental factors with spreading velocity. Here, we show that two lineages, 2.MED and 1.ORI3, spread significantly faster than others, possibly reflecting differences among strains in transmission mechanisms and virulence. Plague spread fastest in regions with low population density and high proportion of pasture- or forestland, findings that should be taken into account for effective plague monitoring and control. Temperature exhibited a nonlinear, U-shaped association with spread speed, with a minimum around 20 °C, while precipitation showed a positive association. Our results suggest that global warming may accelerate plague spread in warm, tropical regions and that the projected increased precipitation in the Northern Hemisphere may increase plague spread in relevant regions.

A study was conducted in a temperate forest located at Donglingshan Mountains from 1999 to 2001 and in a subtropical forest located at Dujiangyan region from 2000 to 2002, both in China, to investigate the impact of small rodents on tree seeds in these forests. The rodent-dispersed tree species included in the study were Quercus liaotungensis and Prunus armeniaca in Donglingshan and Q. variabilis, Q. serrata, Castanopsis fargesii and Camellia oleifera in Dujiangyan. From 1999 to 2001, 171 individuals of small nocturnal rodents were trapped in 900 trap nights in the Donglingshan forest, while from 2000 to 2002, 228 small nocturnal rodents were captured in 2250 trap nights at the Dujiangyan forest. In both forests, seed production of the tree species varied among years. Nearly 100% of the tin-tagged seeds were harvested (i.e., removed or consumed in situ) by small rodents within 1 or 2 weeks after release at seed stations. The proportion of seed removal versus consumption in situ varied significantly among seed species, seasons, years and stands. Results indicated that rodents prefer to remove large seeds or high value seeds. Post-removal seed fate can be sorted into three categories: (1) cached, including buried intact in the soil by rodents or deposited intact on the surface; (2) eaten, leaving only tin tags and seed fragments; and (3) missing with their true fates unknown. In both forests, scatterhoarding by small rodents was very common, but the proportion of the cached seeds varied among the seed species, years and stands. Seeds were often recovered from caches within several days and transported to new cache sites or eaten near cache sites. The amount of seed recaching by rodents was higher in subtropical forest than that in temperate forest. Seeds with a hard hull or higher nutritional value were recached more frequently than seeds with a soft hull or lower value. In both forests, small rodents made caches with similar numbers of seeds. For all species in both forests, 76-100% of primary caches and nearly 100% of higher order caches (i.e. secondary and tertiary caches) contained only one seed. In both forests, over 80% of cached seeds for all seed species were dispersed less than 20 m from the seed stations. More than 70 and 60% of all cached Q. liaotungensis and other tree species seeds, respectively, were deposited under shrubs in the Donglingshan and Dujiangyang forests. In both forests, tagged seeds with a hard hull (e.g. P. armeniaca) or high caloric value (e.g. C. oleifera and Q. variabilis) were more likely to survive and establish seedlings than tagged acorns of other studied species.

) increases linearly in the 10 nM to 40 μM TC concentration range with a detection limit of 7.7 nM (S/N = 3). It has been successfully applied in the detection of TCs in spiked tap water and soil samples with satisfactory recovery (96.6-107.2%) and high precision. Furthermore, a test paper and smartphone can assist in rapidly detecting TCs due to the emission color change from blue to red with the addition of TCs. This shows that the proposed method has great potential for the rapid detection TCs in real samples.

The world’s forests have never been more threatened by invasions of exotic pests and pathogens, whose causes and impacts are reinforced by global change. However, forest entomologists and pathologists have, for too long, worked independently, used different concepts and proposed specific management methods without recognising parallels and synergies between their respective fields. Instead, we advocate increased collaboration between these two scientific communities to improve the long-term health of forests. Our arguments are that the pathways of entry of exotic pests and pathogens are often the same and that insects and fungi often coexist in the same affected trees. Innovative methods for preventing invasions, early detection and identification of non-native species, modelling of their impact and spread and prevention of damage by increasing the resistance of ecosystems can be shared for the management of both pests and diseases. We, therefore, make recommendations to foster this convergence, proposing in particular the development of interdisciplinary research programmes, the development of generic tools or methods for pest and pathogen management and capacity building for the education and training of students, managers, decision-makers and citizens concerned with forest health.

A mixed species release of parasitoids is used to suppress outbreaks of tobacco whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae); however, this biocontrol may be inhibited by interspecific interactions. We investigated the effects of mixed releases of natural enemies of B. tabaci on predation rates, parasite performance and adult parasitoid emergence under greenhouse conditions. We tested the polyphagous predatory ladybird Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and two whitefly-specific parasitoids, namely Encarsia formosa and Encarsia sophia (both, Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Harmonia axyridis exhibited the lowest rates of predation when released with each parasitoid than with both parasitoid species together and showed a significant preference for non-parasitized nymphs as prey. Both E. formosa and E. sophia parasitized more B. tabaci when released with the ladybird than when the wasps were released either alone or mixed with the other parasitoid. We also found that the presence of H. axyridis significantly reduced adult parasitoid emergence; the highest rate of adult emergence was obtained with parasitoids released alone. Our results indicate that different combinations of natural enemies can influence observed rates of predation, parasitism, and parasitoid emergence. Therefore, the combination of natural enemies to be used for a particular biological control program should depend on the specific objectives.