Stockholm Environment Institute

Plastic products are easy and convenient for our everyday use, but their negative impacts on human health and the environment cannot be overlooked. The negative impacts and effects of plastic waste are now widely known and have been subject of much recent media coverage, both in Europe and on a global level. Faced with increasing amounts of plastic waste, the European Union as a whole and many European governments in particular, are currently revising the policy options available to cope with the problem. One of the tools which may be deployed with a view to reducing the pressures posed by plastic waste, is the Extended Producer Responsibility principle. It is considered to be one of the major waste management policy instruments that support the implementation of the European waste hierarchy. Its application may assist in fostering the collection and recycling of waste streams that contain plastic. This paper presents an overview of the problems posed by plastic waste, and outlines their environmental dimensions. It discusses the role of the Extended Producer Responsibility principle and provides some recommendations that may be useful in enhancing extended producer responsibility.

Abstract This paper summarises the results of a more than 5-year practice-led study on the use of upcycling design and production methods in garment mass production. The efficiency of upcycling design approach is described by analysing the generation and potential use of various types of fabric leftovers from garment manufacturing. The results of this research show that depending on the size of the factory the fabric leftovers and textile waste generated in garment production ranges from 25–40% of the total fabric used. Experiments show that 50% of that material can be upcycled into new garments and for some types of leftover—mainly spreading loss and excess fabric—it can even be up to 80%. Implementing upcycling on the industrial level requires transparency to understand the waste created in garment production and create designs that suite the production system. It is important to consider that the upcycling design process differs from regular design—a garment is designed based on the parameters of the waste materials.

This article focuses on the complex relationship between development and disaster risk. Development and disaster risk are closely linked as the people and assets exposed to risk, as well as their vulnerability and capacity, are largely determined by development processes. Transformation is key to moving from current development patterns that increase, create or unfairly distribute risks, to forms of development that are equitable, resilient and sustainable. Based on a review of existing literature, we present three opportunities that have the potential to lead to transformation in the development-disaster risk relationship: (i) exposing development-disaster risk trade-offs in development policy and decision-making; (ii) prioritizing equity and social justice in approaches to secure resilience; and (iii) enabling transformation through adaptive governance. This research aims to contribute to breaking down existing barriers in research, policy and practice between the disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation, and development communities by providing cross-sectoral opportunities to operationalize theoretical knowledge on transformation. It also helps to clarify the connections between different global agendas by positioning transformation as a potential bridging concept to link disconnected policy processes. This paper argues for empirical research to test the opportunities presented here and further define transformative pathways at multiple scales.

This paper presents the results of an internationally coordinated contingent valuation study on the benefits of reducing marine eutrophication in the Baltic Sea according to current policy targets. With over 10,500 respondents from the nine coastal states around the sea, we examine public willingness to pay (WTP) for reduced eutrophication and its determinants. There are considerable differences in mean WTP between countries, with Swedes being willing to pay the most and Latvians the least. The aggregate annual WTP is approximately €3600 million. In addition, we find that countries are heterogeneous in terms of the effects of income, attitudes and familiarity on WTP. Income elasticities of WTP are below 1 for all countries, ranging between 0.1 and 0.5. Attitudes and personal experience of eutrophication are important determinants of WTP, but the specific effects differ between countries. The findings can be used in economic analyses for the European Union (EU) Marine Strategy Framework Directive and to justify additional eutrophication reduction measures in the Baltic Sea.

Green bonds are considered one of the most important innovations in sustainable finance. However, there is a lack of conceptual and empirical understanding of the role of green bonds in corporate transition to carbon neutrality. This study develops and tests a conceptual framework that links green bonds to climate targets in the context of corporate transition risk management and polycentric climate governance. It is based on an analysis of the twenty largest European green bond issuers in 2018. We find that in most cases there is a disconnect between issuers’ climate targets and their green bond frameworks; and several shortcomings in issuers’ post-issuance reporting. Our results suggest that there is little pressure for green bond issuers to use their proceeds to achieve ambitious science-based targets. Our findings highlight the need for policy action to reduce the risk of greenwashing and to situate the green bond market within planetary boundaries.

Background: Despite emerging research on novel mobility solutions in urban areas, there have been few attempts to explore the relevance and sustainability of these solutions in rural contexts. Furthermore, existing research addressing rural mobility solutions typically focuses on a specific user group, such as local residents, second-home owners, or tourists. In this paper, we study the social inclusivity, economic viability, and environmental impacts of novel mobility solutions in rural contexts based on published scholarly literature. When doing so, we bring both permanent and temporary residents of rural areas under one research framework. Methods: We used grey literature to identify and categorise novel mobility solutions, which have been applied in European rural areas and are suitable for travelling longer distances. By using six service flexibility variables, we reached four categories of novel mobility solutions: semi-flexible demand-responsive transport, flexible door-to-door demand-responsive transport, car-sharing, and ride-sharing. We analysed the social inclusivity, economic viability, and environmental impacts of those categories based on criteria and evidence identified from scholarly literature by including the perspectives of both permanent and temporary residents of rural areas. Results: Our findings revealed that while single novel mobility solutions are seldom applicable for all rural travellers, strong spatial and temporal synergies exist when combining different solutions. The need for a connected and flexible set of mobility solutions sensitive to the temporal and spatial patterns of mobility needs is inevitable. Accessible and easily understandable information on routing, booking, and ticketing systems, as well as cooperation, shared values, and trust between various parties, are key success factors for sustainable rural mobility. Conclusion: Integration of the needs of various user groups is essential when aiming to achieve the provision of environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable mobility solutions in rural areas. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12544-022-00536-3.

Current approaches to environmental protection and development on land, along rivers and coastal zones, and in marine environments are struggling to effectively promote sustainability. This is partly due to limited understanding of how ecosystems are linked, and partly due to fragmented governance and management arrangements in the continuum from source to sea that hinders cooperation and strategic overview across connected systems. Meanwhile, the key flows that link ecosystems are being altered by climate change and by an intensification of human activities, which are also expanding offshore where management regimes are typically weak or non-existent. This paper presents a conceptual framework to guide the design of future initiatives aimed at supporting green and blue growth in source-to-sea systems. It includes a taxonomy of key flows, elements to guide analysis and planning and a common framework for elaborating a theory of change. Assembling a governance baseline and engaging stakeholders are critical elements in the approach. The conceptual framework builds on recent experiences of pro-sustainability action in source-to-sea systems around the world, and the paper applies the theory of change framework to selected case studies in order to develop further insights.

Horizontal, vertical, and temporal variability of chlorophyll a (Chl a ), stratification, currents, and pelagial biology (phytoplankton, size‐fractionated primary productivity and Chl a , ciliates, picocyanobacteria, bacterial production) were followed at the entrance to the Gulf of Finland during a 12‐day cast study in July–August 1994. The study was carried out during weak wind conditions when hydrodynamic activity was minimal and when an intense blooming of diazotrophic cyanobacteria Aphanizomenon flos‐aquae (Linné) Ralfs, Anabaena lemmermannii Richter , and Noduluria spumigena Mertens was in its decaying phase. The property conservation equation was used to differentiate the contributions of physical and biological processes to the local Chl a changes in the layer above the thermocline. Subtraction of the Chl a change due to physical processes, mainly advection, gave a biologically induced mean decrease of 0.18 mg Chl a m −3 d −1 . Sampling data confirmed the calculated decrease and revealed the basin‐wide character of the phenomenon. The observed plankton dynamics showed that the pelagial system was “top‐down” controlled and that about half the decrease of Chl a was due to a size‐specific grazing of ciliates on the dominating flagellates Chrysochromulina spp. 2–5 µm and Ochromonas spp. 7–8 µm in the upper layer. The grazers were confined to the layer above the thermocline, while the flagellates inhabited both the thermocline and the layer above. This led to the formation of a subsurface Chl a maximum in the thermocline.

We use data from a survey of 2439 farmers in 5 countries around the Baltic Sea (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Poland and Sweden) to investigate their preferences for adopting agricultural practices aimed at reducing nutrient leaching and greenhouse gas emissions. The measures considered are set-aside, catch crops and reduced fertilization. Contracts vary with respect to the area enrolled, contract length, possibility of premature termination, availability of professional advice and compensation. We quantitatively describe farmers' preferences in terms of their willingness-to-accept compensation for specific attributes of these contracts, if implemented. The results vary substantially between farm types (farmers' characteristics) and between the 5 countries, and support differentiation of contract obligations and payments to improve the uptake of Agri-Environmental Schemes. The results can be readily used to improve the design of country-specific nutrient reduction policies, in accordance with the next Common Agricultural Policy.

Three pollen profiles from Saaremaa Island (West Estonian Archipelago) record vegetation history from the early Holocene up to the present, and land-use history since the late Mesolithic. A new numerical zonation approach for distinguishing between human and climatic impacts in the pollen record in boreal forest is suggested. Zonation and correlation of the studied profiles suggests four pollen-assemblage zones, regarded as regionally significant. Land uplift, in interaction with a milder climate and easily cultivated soils, facilitated by changing economy, has been the most important factor during the colonization and management of coastal areas. Human impact on Saaremaa Island may be divided into four main phases: (a) Mesolithic and Early Neolithic forest disturbance by hunter-gathering people; (b) forest clearances, pastoral farming and first attempts of cereal cultivation by Neolithic people; (c) more regular cultivation with introduction of slash-and-burn agriculture since the Late Neolithic; (d) permanent field cultivation since the Migration Period/Viking Age.

Radiofrequency (RF) radiation in the frequency range of 30‑300 GHz has, since 2011, been classified as a ‘possible’ human carcinogen by Group 2B, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) at WHO. This was based on a number of human epidemiology studies on increased risk for glioma and acoustic neuroma. Based on further human epidemiology studies and animal studies, the evidence on RF radiation carcinogenesis has increased since 2011. In previous measurement studies, it has been indicated that high environmental RF radiation levels are present in certain areas of Stockholm Sweden, including in one apartment. Field spatial distribution measurements were performed in the previously measured apartment in Stockholm, which exhibited high RF radiation from nearby base stations. Based on the RF broadband analyzer spot measurements, the maximum indoor E‑field topped at 3 V m‑1 in the bedroom at the 7th floor. The maximum outdoor exposure level of 6 V m‑1 was encountered at the 8th floor balcony, located at the same elevation and only 6.16 m away from the base station antennas. For comparison, a measurement was made in a low exposure apartment in Stockholm. Here, the maximum indoor field 0.52 V m‑1 was measured at the corner window, with direct line of sight to the neighboring house with mobile phone base station antennas. The maximum outdoor field of 0.75 V m‑1 was measured at the balcony facing the same next‑door building with mobile phone base station antennas. The minimum field of 0.10 V m‑1 was registered on the apartment area closest to the center of the building, demonstrating the shielding effects of the indoor walls. Good mobile phone reception was achieved in both apartments. Therefore, installation of base stations to risky places cannot be justified using the good reception requirement argument.

Development and disaster risk are deeply linked. Disasters reverse development gains; development initiatives influence the risk, vulnerability, and exposure of people, assets, and environments to disasters. Hence, knowledge of key dimensions of the potential trade-offs between development and disaster risk reduction (DRR) may inform decision-making processes, goals, and initiatives in ways that have potential to address unsustainable development practices that are commonplace in countries of all economic levels. This paper presents, explores, and tests a conceptual framework for analysing the trade-offs that underpin this relationship as evidenced through policy goals, initiatives, and decision-making processes. We categorise key dimensions of relevant trade-offs into five specific dimensions: (i) The aggregation of development and DRR gains and losses, (ii) risk prioritisation when seeking to reduce multiple risks, (iii) the equity of decision-making processes and outcomes, (iv) the balancing of near- and long-term goals, and (v) the distribution of power and participation. By framing key questions related to each trade-off dimension, we test the framework in the context of a major disaster recovery process in Tacloban, the Philippines, following Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) in November 2013. We consider how decision-making trade-offs can be made more visible and useful in the pursuit of transformative change in development and DRR.

Semi-coke is a solid waste material left after oil shale retorting in oil shale chemical industry. During more than 80 years of operation more than 110 million tonnes of semicoke have been deposited at retorting plants in Estonia but so far very little is known about the mineral composition of this waste. This paper presents new data on mineral composition of semi-coke and its spatial variation in waste heaps. The composition of semi-coke reflects the changes of mineral matter during the retorting process. The changes with the terrigenous and carbonate matter is almost negligible during the main phase of retorting, only dehydration and partial transformation of clay minerals and decomposition of sulfur compounds occur. At the final step of retorting (900-1000 C) a slag-like material forms, which consists of amorphous and Ca-silicate phases.

Urban public spaces, both natural and built, contribute to the liveability of urban spaces. Evidence shows that natural urban spaces can improve both physical and psychological wellbeing through providing cultural ecosystem services (CES), but there is a lack of evidence from Low and Middle Income Countries (LMIC). Recognising the pressures that public spaces are under in rapidly changing cities of the Global South, it is critical that research is done to strengthen the argument to maintain the availability and accessibility of these assets. This is particularly the case in secondary cities where pressures to redevelop are high due to rapidly growing populations, whilst governance and planning systems typically prioritise growth. This paper presents participatory geographic information system survey findings for two contrasting LMIC secondary cities (Nakuru, Kenya, and Udon Thani, Thailand). We explore the interlinkages between urban public spaces, CES, and residents’ wellbeing. Our findings show that both natural and built areas in these two very different ecosystems are important for promoting wellbeing. Key factors that enabled or prevented the use of public spaces were convenience: proximity, affordability, and usability. The results also highlight the effects of the inequitable distribution of inviting public realm spaces across the cities and consider the impacts on spatial justice. These findings strengthen the need to promote wellbeing considerations through urban planning in rapidly changing cities to ensure their future liveability.

Progress towards the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is monitored using a set of targets and indicators. Gaps in official datasets have led to calls for the inclusion of data generated through citizen science (CS) and allied approaches. Co-benefits of CS mean these approaches could also contribute to localising, defining, and achieving the SDGs. However, mapping of current and potential contributions is needed, as well as an understanding of the challenges these approaches present. We undertake a semi-systematic review of past and current CS projects and assess them against dimensions of CS—spatial, temporal, thematic, process, and management—and their value for the SDGs set out by Fritz et al. in 2019, focusing on low and middle income country (LMIC) cities as key environments in the battle for sustainability. We conduct interviews with project leaders to further understand the challenges for CS in these contexts. We find opportunities for projects to monitor and achieve a wide range of goals, targets, and indicators. However, we find fewer projects in low income countries when compared with middle income countries. Challenges include balancing local needs with national monitoring requirements and a lack of long-term funding. Support is needed for LMICs to achieve the potential of CS.

Food loss and food waste are urgent global problems relating to environmental and social challenges including biodiversity loss, climate change, health, and malnutrition. Reduction targets have been set, including Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12.3, which aims to halve per capita food waste at retail and consumer levels globally by 2030, as well as reduce food losses along production and supply chains. Citizen science, the engagement of members of the public in data collection and other elements of the scientific process, can play a role in tackling the problem of food waste and food loss. In this paper, we scope opportunities for using citizen science to answer 26 priority research questions identified by experts in the field of food waste and food loss as being critical to achieving SDG12.3. We describe how citizen science can be used to quantify and understand causes of food loss and waste. Crucially, we demonstrate the value of citizen science in being not just a data gathering tool but also a method of bringing about change through influencing action, from individual behavior to policy making. Furthermore, we argue the need to bring together all actors in the food system in citizen science projects in order to build shared understanding that will ultimately lead to reduced loss and waste across the food system.

Abstract Spatial distributions of Chl a concentration and of the hydrophysical properties in the upper 50-m layer were mapped at the entrance to the Gulf of Finland in the period 16–26 July 1996 using a towed undulating CTD/fluorimeter and a shipboard Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler. An area of 30 × 15 km was covered daily by tracking 3–6 meridional legs (5 km apart). The longitudinal resolution of the data along the legs was 500–600 m. A variety of mesoscale hydrophysical phenomena was observed: a salinity front between the saltier (higher chlorophyll content) northern Baltic Proper and the fresher (lower chlorophyll content) Gulf waters in the upper mixed layer, wind-induced downwelling, the related jets, and an anticyclonic eddy. The patchiness of the chlorophyll concentration (within 2–6 mg Chl a m−3) was consistent with the observed background hydrodynamical processes. The apparent bands of chlorophyll of different concentrations along the front are explained by means of differential advection of different water masses from upstream areas, rather than by accumulation of phytoplankton due to ageostrophic cross-frontal circulation. In the coastal area, as a consequence of relatively strong downwelling, the chlorophyll-containing layer deepened to a depth of 40–45 m (i.e., to about twice the euphotic layer thickness). The thickness of this layer, and consequently the amount of chlorophyll, decreased considerably above the anticyclonic eddy formed after relaxation of downwelling. A deep and narrow (decimetre-scale) but horizontally heterogeneous chlorophyll maximum was detected at the depths of 30–50 m. This unique layer for the Baltic Sea was formed solely by Heterocapsa triquetra Ehrenberg, with peak values mostly comparable to and occasionally up to eight times higher than those in the subsurface layer.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Most epidemiological studies on traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI) have not included patients who die before hospitalization. The aim of the research was to study the incidence of TSCI by including the individuals who die at the scene of the accident in addition to data retrieved from all hospitals in Estonia. METHODS: Medical records of patients with TSCI from all hospitals in Estonia from 2005 to 2007 were studied. With collaboration from the Estonian Forensic Science Institute the data of the victims of TSCI who died before hospitalization were included. RESULTS: From 2005 to 2007, 391 TSCI cases were identified: 183 patients were found retrospectively from medical records and 208 cases were detected from autopsy reports. Fifty-three per cent of patients died before hospitalization. The annual incidence rate was 97.0 per million population (95% confidence interval 87.4-106.6). The mean age at injury was 44.4 ± 18.7 years. Motor vehicle accidents were the leading cause of TSCI amongst the individuals who died before hospitalization (75%). Falls accounted for the highest number of TSCIs (43%) amongst the patients who reached hospital. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that, when the cases that die at the scene of the accident are included, the incidence of TSCI in Estonia rises from 39.7 to 97.0 per million population.

Security of energy supply, promotion of the bio-economy, nutrient recycling, and innovation are prioritized policy areas in the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (EUBSR). The Baltic Sea Region (BSR) has a great bioenergy potential worth exploring in this context. This paper explores the state-of-art of bioenergy systems and synergies with eco-systems services in the BSR region in the context of developing the region’s bio-economy. In this brief assessment, we consider 8 countries (i.e. Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Denmark, and Belarus) in the region. While the production and use of modern bioenergy can help reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, promote energy security, diversify energy resources, and contribute to a successful circular economy and rural development, it is important to find a balance between the exploration of resources and the management of eco-systems services. In addition, both climate change vulnerability and bioenergy production may affect the environment and the capacity of the BSR to deliver ecosystem services (ESS). We recommend integrated strategies for optimal use of bioresources in the region. Bioeconomy can be realized by innovative approaches, establishing cross-cutting institutional and policy linkages for increased prosperity and green growth in the Baltic Sea Region.

Community participation is considered an integral part of Build Back Better (BBB) initiatives and an asset for ensuring equitable resilient outcomes of post-disaster recovery. However, BBB-related practices, as well as recovery research have failed to overcome the challenge of practices reinforcing inequities that require addressing issues of power. This scoping review examines the intersection of power and participation in post-disaster recovery. Using a qualitative analytical approach, this paper presents an overview of the existing power imbalances, participatory activities, and their associated outcomes. How can participatory processes influence power dynamics? The study identifies five roles that participatory processes can play: raising critical consciousness, reflecting just power relations, developing a culture of change-making, changing relationships between actors, and providing a structure for change. In general, this scoping review finds that the literature does not make use of power as an explicit analytical lens and that the social processes related to participation are insufficiently documented. Correcting for these gaps can generate a better understanding of the possibilities for collaborative disaster risk governance in recovery.