Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network

, water, and energy exchange between the biosphere and the atmosphere, and other meteorological and biological measurements, from 212 sites around the globe (over 1500 site-years, up to and including year 2014). These sites, independently managed and operated, voluntarily contributed their data to create global datasets. Data were quality controlled and processed using uniform methods, to improve consistency and intercomparability across sites. The dataset is already being used in a number of applications, including ecophysiology studies, remote sensing studies, and development of ecosystem and Earth system models. FLUXNET2015 includes derived-data products, such as gap-filled time series, ecosystem respiration and photosynthetic uptake estimates, estimation of uncertainties, and metadata about the measurements, presented for the first time in this paper. In addition, 206 of these sites are for the first time distributed under a Creative Commons (CC-BY 4.0) license. This paper details this enhanced dataset and the processing methods, now made available as open-source codes, making the dataset more accessible, transparent, and reproducible.

Carbon use efficiency (CUE) is a fundamental parameter for ecological models based on the physiology of microorganisms. CUE determines energy and material flows to higher trophic levels, conversion of plant-produced carbon into microbial products and rates of ecosystem carbon storage. Thermodynamic calculations support a maximum CUE value of ~ 0.60 (CUE max). Kinetic and stoichiometric constraints on microbial growth suggest that CUE in multi-resource limited natural systems should approach ~ 0.3 (CUE max /2). However, the mean CUE values reported for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems differ by twofold (~ 0.26 vs. ~ 0.55) because the methods used to estimate CUE in aquatic and terrestrial systems generally differ and soil estimates are less likely to capture the full maintenance costs of community metabolism given the difficulty of measurements in water-limited environments. Moreover, many simulation models lack adequate representation of energy spilling pathways and stoichiometric constraints on metabolism, which can also lead to overestimates of CUE. We recommend that broad-scale models use a CUE value of 0.30, unless there is evidence for lower values as a result of pervasive nutrient limitations. Ecosystem models operating at finer scales should consider resource composition, stoichiometric constraints and biomass composition, as well as environmental drivers, to predict the CUE of microbial communities.

Abstract Long‐term ecological studies are critical for providing key insights in ecology, environmental change, natural resource management and biodiversity conservation. In this paper, we briefly discuss five key values of such studies. These are: (1) quantifying ecological responses to drivers of ecosystem change; (2) understanding complex ecosystem processes that occur over prolonged periods; (3) providing core ecological data that may be used to develop theoretical ecological models and to parameterize and validate simulation models; (4) acting as platforms for collaborative studies, thus promoting multidisciplinary research; and (5) providing data and understanding at scales relevant to management, and hence critically supporting evidence‐based policy, decision making and the management of ecosystems. We suggest that the ecological research community needs to put higher priority on communicating the benefits of long‐term ecological studies to resource managers, policy makers and the general public. Long‐term research will be especially important for tackling large‐scale emerging problems confronting humanity such as resource management for a rapidly increasing human population, mass species extinction, and climate change detection, mitigation and adaptation. While some ecologically relevant, long‐term data sets are now becoming more generally available, these are exceptions. This deficiency occurs because ecological studies can be difficult to maintain for long periods as they exceed the length of government administrations and funding cycles. We argue that the ecological research community will need to coordinate ongoing efforts in an open and collaborative way, to ensure that discoverable long‐term ecological studies do not become a long‐term deficiency. It is important to maintain publishing outlets for empirical field‐based ecology, while simultaneously developing new systems of recognition that reward ecologists for the use and collaborative sharing of their long‐term data sets. Funding schemes must be re‐crafted to emphasize collaborative partnerships between field‐based ecologists, theoreticians and modellers, and to provide financial support that is committed over commensurate time frames.

Species extinctions pose serious threats to the functioning of ecological communities worldwide. We used two qualitative and quantitative pollination networks to simulate extinction patterns following three removal scenarios: random removal and systematic removal of the strongest and weakest interactors. We accounted for pollinator behaviour by including potential links into temporal snapshots (12 consecutive 2-week networks) to reflect mutualists' ability to 'switch' interaction partners (re-wiring). Qualitative data suggested a linear or slower than linear secondary extinction while quantitative data showed sigmoidal decline of plant interaction strength upon removal of the strongest interactor. Temporal snapshots indicated greater stability of re-wired networks over static systems. Tolerance of generalized networks to species extinctions was high in the random removal scenario, with an increase in network stability if species formed new interactions. Anthropogenic disturbance, however, that promote the extinction of the strongest interactors might induce a sudden collapse of pollination networks.

Plants rapidly release photoassimilated carbon (C) to the soil via direct root exudation and associated mycorrhizal fungi, with both pathways promoting plant nutrient availability. This study aimed to explore these pathways from the root's vascular bundle to soil microbial communities. Using nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) imaging and (13) C-phospho- and neutral lipid fatty acids, we traced in-situ flows of recently photoassimilated C of (13) CO2 -exposed wheat (Triticum aestivum) through arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) into root- and hyphae-associated soil microbial communities. Intraradical hyphae of AM fungi were significantly (13) C-enriched compared to other root-cortex areas after 8 h of labelling. Immature fine root areas close to the root tip, where AM features were absent, showed signs of passive C loss and co-location of photoassimilates with nitrogen taken up from the soil solution. A significant and exclusively fresh proportion of (13) C-photosynthates was delivered through the AM pathway and was utilised by different microbial groups compared to C directly released by roots. Our results indicate that a major release of recent photosynthates into soil leave plant roots via AM intraradical hyphae already upstream of passive root exudations. AM fungi may act as a rapid hub for translocating fresh plant C to soil microbes.

Dryland biomes cover two-fifths of Earth's land surface, but their forest area is poorly known. Here, we report an estimate of global forest extent in dryland biomes, based on analyzing more than 210,000 0.5-hectare sample plots through a photo-interpretation approach using large databases of satellite imagery at (i) very high spatial resolution and (ii) very high temporal resolution, which are available through the Google Earth platform. We show that in 2015, 1327 million hectares of drylands had more than 10% tree-cover, and 1079 million hectares comprised forest. Our estimate is 40 to 47% higher than previous estimates, corresponding to 467 million hectares of forest that have never been reported before. This increases current estimates of global forest cover by at least 9%.

Abstract Societal, economic and scientific interests in knowing where biodiversity is, how it is faring and what can be done to efficiently mitigate further biodiversity loss and the associated loss of ecosystem services are at an all‐time high. So far, however, biodiversity monitoring has primarily focused on structural and compositional features of ecosystems despite growing evidence that ecosystem functions are key to elucidating the mechanisms through which biological diversity generates services to humanity. This monitoring gap can be traced to the current lack of consensus on what exactly ecosystem functions are and how to track them at scales beyond the site level. This contribution aims to advance the development of a global biodiversity monitoring strategy by proposing the adoption of a set of definitions and a typology for ecosystem functions, and reviewing current opportunities and potential limitations for satellite remote sensing technology to support the monitoring of ecosystem functions worldwide. By clearly defining ecosystem processes, functions and services and their interrelationships, we provide a framework to improve communication between ecologists, land and marine managers, remote sensing specialists and policy makers, thereby addressing a major barrier in the field.

Abstract Knowledge of the internal renewable water resources of a country is strategic information which is needed for long‐term planning of a nation's water and food security, among many other needs. New modelling tools allow this quantification with high spatial and temporal resolution. In this study we used the program Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) in combination with the Sequential Uncertainty Fitting program (SUFI‐2) to calibrate and validate a hydrologic model of Iran based on river discharges and wheat yield, taking into consideration dam operations and irrigation practices. Uncertainty analyses were also performed to assess the model performance. The results were quite satisfactory for most of the rivers across the country. We quantified all components of the water balance including blue water flow (water yield plus deep aquifer recharge), green water flow (actual and potential evapotranspiration) and green water storage (soil moisture) at sub‐basin level with monthly time‐steps. The spatially aggregated water resources and simulated yield compared well with the existing data. The study period was 1990–2002 for calibration and 1980–1989 for validation. The results show that irrigation practices have a significant impact on the water balances of the provinces with irrigated agriculture. Concerning the staple food crop in the country, 55% of irrigated wheat and 57% of rain‐fed wheat are produced every year in water‐scarce regions. The vulnerable situation of water resources availability has serious implications for the country's food security, and the looming impact of climate change could only worsen the situation. This study provides a strong basis for further studies concerning the water and food security and the water resources management strategies in the country and a unified approach for the analysis of blue and green water in other arid and semi‐arid countries. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Abstract. A globally integrated carbon observation and analysis system is needed to improve the fundamental understanding of the global carbon cycle, to improve our ability to project future changes, and to verify the effectiveness of policies aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase carbon sequestration. Building an integrated carbon observation system requires transformational advances from the existing sparse, exploratory framework towards a dense, robust, and sustained system in all components: anthropogenic emissions, the atmosphere, the ocean, and the terrestrial biosphere. The paper is addressed to scientists, policymakers, and funding agencies who need to have a global picture of the current state of the (diverse) carbon observations. We identify the current state of carbon observations, and the needs and notional requirements for a global integrated carbon observation system that can be built in the next decade. A key conclusion is the substantial expansion of the ground-based observation networks required to reach the high spatial resolution for CO2 and CH4 fluxes, and for carbon stocks for addressing policy-relevant objectives, and attributing flux changes to underlying processes in each region. In order to establish flux and stock diagnostics over areas such as the southern oceans, tropical forests, and the Arctic, in situ observations will have to be complemented with remote-sensing measurements. Remote sensing offers the advantage of dense spatial coverage and frequent revisit. A key challenge is to bring remote-sensing measurements to a level of long-term consistency and accuracy so that they can be efficiently combined in models to reduce uncertainties, in synergy with ground-based data. Bringing tight observational constraints on fossil fuel and land use change emissions will be the biggest challenge for deployment of a policy-relevant integrated carbon observation system. This will require in situ and remotely sensed data at much higher resolution and density than currently achieved for natural fluxes, although over a small land area (cities, industrial sites, power plants), as well as the inclusion of fossil fuel CO2 proxy measurements such as radiocarbon in CO2 and carbon-fuel combustion tracers. Additionally, a policy-relevant carbon monitoring system should also provide mechanisms for reconciling regional top-down (atmosphere-based) and bottom-up (surface-based) flux estimates across the range of spatial and temporal scales relevant to mitigation policies. In addition, uncertainties for each observation data-stream should be assessed. The success of the system will rely on long-term commitments to monitoring, on improved international collaboration to fill gaps in the current observations, on sustained efforts to improve access to the different data streams and make databases interoperable, and on the calibration of each component of the system to agreed-upon international scales.

Abstract The leaf economics spectrum 1,2 and the global spectrum of plant forms and functions 3 revealed fundamental axes of variation in plant traits, which represent different ecological strategies that are shaped by the evolutionary development of plant species 2 . Ecosystem functions depend on environmental conditions and the traits of species that comprise the ecological communities 4 . However, the axes of variation of ecosystem functions are largely unknown, which limits our understanding of how ecosystems respond as a whole to anthropogenic drivers, climate and environmental variability 4,5 . Here we derive a set of ecosystem functions 6 from a dataset of surface gas exchange measurements across major terrestrial biomes. We find that most of the variability within ecosystem functions (71.8%) is captured by three key axes. The first axis reflects maximum ecosystem productivity and is mostly explained by vegetation structure. The second axis reflects ecosystem water-use strategies and is jointly explained by variation in vegetation height and climate. The third axis, which represents ecosystem carbon-use efficiency, features a gradient related to aridity, and is explained primarily by variation in vegetation structure. We show that two state-of-the-art land surface models reproduce the first and most important axis of ecosystem functions. However, the models tend to simulate more strongly correlated functions than those observed, which limits their ability to accurately predict the full range of responses to environmental changes in carbon, water and energy cycling in terrestrial ecosystems 7,8 .

Abstract. OzFlux is the regional Australian and New Zealand flux tower network that aims to provide a continental-scale national research facility to monitor and assess trends, and improve predictions, of Australia's terrestrial biosphere and climate. This paper describes the evolution, design, and current status of OzFlux as well as provides an overview of data processing. We analyse measurements from all sites within the Australian portion of the OzFlux network and two sites from New Zealand. The response of the Australian biomes to climate was largely consistent with global studies except that Australian systems had a lower ecosystem water-use efficiency. Australian semi-arid/arid ecosystems are important because of their huge extent (70 %) and they have evolved with common moisture limitations. We also found that Australian ecosystems had a similar radiation-use efficiency per unit leaf area compared to global values that indicates a convergence toward a similar biochemical efficiency. The two New Zealand sites represented extremes in productivity for a moist temperate climate zone, with the grazed dairy farm site having the highest GPP of any OzFlux site (2620 gC m−2 yr−1) and the natural raised peat bog site having a very low GPP (820 gC m−2 yr−1). The paper discusses the utility of the flux data and the synergies between flux, remote sensing, and modelling. Lastly, the paper looks ahead at the future direction of the network and concludes that there has been a substantial contribution by OzFlux, and considerable opportunities remain to further advance our understanding of ecosystem response to disturbances, including drought, fire, land-use and land-cover change, land management, and climate change, which are relevant both nationally and internationally. It is suggested that a synergistic approach is required to address all of the spatial, ecological, human, and cultural challenges of managing the delicately balanced ecosystems in Australasia.

The influence of biochar (biomass-derived black carbon) on crop growth and nutrient uptake varies based on the rate of biochar applied with fertilisers. We investigated the effect of deep-banded oil mallee biochar at different rates (0, 1.5, 3.0, and 6 t/ha) with 2 types of fertiliser (non-inoculated MultiMAPS® at 30 or 55 kg/ha; inoculated Western Mineral Fertiliser at 100 kg/ha) on wheat growth at a farmer’s field in a low rainfall area of Western Australia. Wheat yield increased significantly when biochar was applied with inoculated fertiliser and 30 kg/ha non-inoculated fertiliser. Mycorrhizal colonisation in wheat roots increased significantly with biochar application with inoculated mineral fertiliser. Mycorrhizal hyphae may have improved water supply to reduce drought stress in these treatments by extending crop exploration of water from the wide inter-rows. Grain yield increases were due to better grain survival and grain fill with reduced drought stress. Early stage phosphorus uptake was not improved by mycorrhizal colonisation—phosphorus supply from the soil and applied fertiliser was already adequate. The residual effect of biochar and mineral fertilisers was assessed using a mycorrhizal bioassay for soil collected from the field trial 2 years after application of biochar. Biochar and both fertilisers increased mycorrhizal colonisation in clover bioassay plants. Deep-banded biochar provided suitable conditions for mycorrhizal fungi to colonise plant roots.

Abstract The occurrence of large, high‐intensity wildfires requires plant biomass, or fuel, that is sufficiently dry to burn. This poses the question, what is “sufficiently dry”? Until recently, the ability to address this question has been constrained by the spatiotemporal scale of available methods to monitor the moisture contents of both dead and live fuels. Here we take advantage of recent developments in macroscale monitoring of fuel moisture through a combination of remote sensing and climatic modeling. We show there are clear thresholds of fuel moisture content associated with the occurrence of wildfires in forests and woodlands. Furthermore, we show that transformations in fuel moisture conditions across these thresholds can occur rapidly, within a month. Both the approach presented here, and our findings, can be immediately applied and may greatly improve fire risk assessments in forests and woodlands globally.

Over the last 60 years, soil microbiologists have accumulated a wealth of experimental data showing that the bulk, macroscopic parameters (e.g., granulometry, pH, soil organic matter, and biomass contents) commonly used to characterize soils provide insufficient information to describe quantitatively the activity of soil microorganisms and some of its outcomes, like the emission of greenhouse gasses. Clearly, new, more appropriate macroscopic parameters are needed, which reflect better the spatial heterogeneity of soils at the microscale (i.e., the pore scale) that is commensurate with the habitat of many microorganisms. For a long time, spectroscopic and microscopic tools were lacking to quantify processes at that scale, but major technological advances over the last 15 years have made suitable equipment available to researchers. In this context, the objective of the present article is to review progress achieved to date in the significant research program that has ensued. This program can be rationalized as a sequence of steps, namely the quantification and modeling of the physical-, (bio)chemical-, and microbiological properties of soils, the integration of these different perspectives into a unified theory, its upscaling to the macroscopic scale, and, eventually, the development of new approaches to measure macroscopic soil characteristics. At this stage, significant progress has been achieved on the physical front, and to a lesser extent on the (bio)chemical one as well, both in terms of experiments and modeling. With regard to the microbial aspects, although a lot of work has been devoted to the modeling of bacterial and fungal activity in soils at the pore scale, the appropriateness of model assumptions cannot be readily assessed because of the scarcity of relevant experimental data. For significant progress to be made, it is crucial to make sure that research on the microbial components of soil systems does not keep lagging behind the work on the physical and (bio)chemical characteristics. Concerning the subsequent steps in the program, very little integration of the various disciplinary perspectives has occurred so far, and, as a result, researchers have not yet been able to tackle the scaling up to the macroscopic level. Many challenges, some of them daunting, remain on the path ahead. Fortunately, a number of these challenges may be resolved by brand new measuring equipment that will become commercially available in the very near future.

Abstract Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and nitric oxide (NO) are atmospheric trace gases that contribute to climate change and affect stratospheric and ground-level ozone concentrations. Ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and archaea (AOA) are key players in the nitrogen cycle and major producers of N 2 O and NO globally. However, nothing is known about N 2 O and NO production by the recently discovered and widely distributed complete ammonia oxidizers (comammox). Here, we show that the comammox bacterium Nitrospira inopinata is sensitive to inhibition by an NO scavenger, cannot denitrify to N 2 O, and emits N 2 O at levels that are comparable to AOA but much lower than AOB. Furthermore, we demonstrate that N 2 O formed by N. inopinata formed under varying oxygen regimes originates from abiotic conversion of hydroxylamine. Our findings indicate that comammox microbes may produce less N 2 O during nitrification than AOB.

Abstract Mechanisms to reduce carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) have been gaining momentum as a way to combat global warming, fund forest conservation, and deliver economic benefits to rural populations. However, the economic viability of REDD schemes will depend on the profitability of alternative land uses. Oil palm agriculture has become a major driver of tropical deforestation over the last few decades. Here, we model and compare the profitability of converting forest to oil palm versus conserving it for an REDD project. We show that converting a hectare of forest for palm oil production will be more profitable (yielding net present values of $3,835–$9,630) to land owners than preserving it for carbon credits ($614–$994), which are currently restricted to voluntary carbon markets. Giving REDD credits price parity with carbon credits traded in compliance markets would boost the profitability of avoided deforestation (up to $6,605). Unless post‐2012 global climate policies legitimize the trading of carbon credits from avoided deforestation, REDD will not be able to compete with oil palm agriculture or other similarly profitable human activities as an economically attractive land‐use option, in which case REDD will not be able to fulfill its primary function of avoiding deforestation.

Summary Leaf area (LA), mass per area (LMA), nitrogen per unit area (N area ) and the leaf‐internal to ambient CO 2 ratio (χ) are fundamental traits for plant functional ecology and vegetation modelling. Here we aimed to assess how their variation, within and between species, tracks environmental gradients. Measurements were made on 705 species from 116 sites within a broad north–south transect from tropical to temperate Australia. Trait responses to environment were quantified using multiple regression; within‐ and between‐species responses were compared using analysis of covariance and trait‐gradient analysis. Leaf area, the leaf economics spectrum (indexed by LMA and N area ) and χ (from stable carbon isotope ratios) varied almost independently among species. Across sites, however, χ and LA increased with mean growing‐season temperature (mGDD 0 ) and decreased with vapour pressure deficit (mVPD 0 ) and soil pH. LMA and N area showed the reverse pattern. Climate responses agreed with expectations based on optimality principles. Within‐species variability contributed < 10% to geographical variation in LA but > 90% for χ, with LMA and N area intermediate. These findings support the hypothesis that acclimation within individuals, adaptation within species and selection among species combine to create predictable relationships between traits and environment. However, the contribution of acclimation/adaptation vs species selection differs among traits.

Abstract In response to growing demand for ecosystem‐level risk assessment in biodiversity conservation, and rapid proliferation of locally tailored protocols, the IUCN recently endorsed new Red List criteria as a global standard for ecosystem risk assessment. Four qualities were sought in the design of the IUCN criteria: generality; precision; realism; and simplicity. Drawing from extensive global consultation, we explore trade‐offs among these qualities when dealing with key challenges, including ecosystem classification, measuring ecosystem dynamics, degradation and collapse, and setting decision thresholds to delimit ordinal categories of threat. Experience from countries with national lists of threatened ecosystems demonstrates well‐balanced trade‐offs in current and potential applications of Red Lists of Ecosystems in legislation, policy, environmental management and education. The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems should be judged by whether it achieves conservation ends and improves natural resource management, whether its limitations are outweighed by its benefits, and whether it performs better than alternative methods. Future development of the Red List of Ecosystems will benefit from the history of the Red List of Threatened Species which was trialed and adjusted iteratively over 50 years from rudimentary beginnings. We anticipate the Red List of Ecosystems will promote policy focus on conservation outcomes in situ across whole landscapes and seascapes.

Oil palm (Elaeis spp.) is one of the world's most rapidly expanding crops. Especially prevalent in Malaysia and Indonesia, oil-palm plantations are also increasing rapidly across tropical regions as diverse as New Guinea, Equatorial Africa, Central America, and the Amazon (Butler & Laurance 2009; Koh & Wilcove 2009). Oil palm is an important driver of tropical deforestation, in part, because plantation owners often use timber revenues from old-growth forests to subsidize the initial costs of plantation establishment and maintenance (Fitzherbert et al. 2008). Expansion of oil palm imperils both lowland rainforests and peat-swamp forests, which are, respectively, among the biologically richest and most carbon-dense ecosystems on Earth (Butler & Laurance 2009; Koh et al. 2009a). The rapid expansion of oil palm seems likely to continue for many years because of its high profitability and the growing global demands for edible oils and biofuel feedstocks. Proponents of palm oil emphasize that its main alternatives, including soy, sunflower, and canola (rapeseed) oils, have production efficiencies just 10–20% as high as palm oil on a per-hectare basis and would therefore require much larger areas of cultivated land to have a similar benefit (Basiron 2009). Nevertheless, from climate-change and biodiversity perspectives, the advantages of palm-oil production are greatly diminished when it contributes either directly or indirectly to deforestation (Gibbs et al. 2008; Danielsen et al. 2009). Growing concerns about the environmental impacts of palm oil helped initiate the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), a nonprofit, industry-led trade organization whose stated mission is to “provide RSPO-certified palm oil to the market in a clear and transparent manner” and to “promote the growth and use of sustainable palm oil” (http://www.rspo.org/What_is_RSPO@.aspx). As implied by the word roundtable, the RSPO professes to advocate a balanced, multistakeholder approach, with considerable emphasis on environmental sustainability. According to the RSPO, this is evidenced by the fact that four of the 16 members of its executive board are from conservation or social-developmental organizations. The RSPO also takes pains to draw a distinction between itself and industry-advocacy groups, such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council and Indonesian Palm Oil Producers Association, by emphasizing its efforts to improve the industry's sustainability and transparency (V. Rao, personal communication). The RSPO has considerable potential to improve the environmental performance of producers and users of palm oil. Although established only in 2004, it is strategically positioned within the palm-oil industry and is particularly influential in Malaysia. The growing membership of RSPO already accounts for approximately 35% of the global production of palm oil, although only about one-tenth of this oil is currently certified as sustainable (RSPO 2008). To define sustainability in the oil-palm sector, the RSPO has developed 39 sustainability criteria, organized under eight general principles, which are designed to limit environmental impacts of growing and processing palm oil. These criteria focus on issues, such as reducing herbicide impacts, air pollution, and losses of biodiversity as well as on social and legal concerns (RSPO 2006). Nevertheless, some environmental organizations have repeatedly criticized the RSPO and its members, particularly for enabling tropical deforestation and atmospheric carbon emissions under the guise of stated, but unfulfilled, sustainability criteria (e.g., Down to Earth 2004; Greenpeace 2008; Maitar 2009). Here, we critique the RSPO from an environmental perspective and identify some specific ways it can become more effective in reducing threats to tropical ecosystems. On balance, we see at least seven limitations or structural deficiencies of the RSPO that either weaken its efforts to limit the environmental impacts of oil-palm expansion or diminish perceptions of its commitment to sustainability: 1. At least numerically, the RSPO is dominated by industry. Of 312 ordinary-member organizations as of October 2009, just 12 and nine hail from conservation or social-development groups, respectively (6.7% in total). By far the largest stakeholders are the 206 oil-palm growing, processing, and trading corporations; the remainder are from banking, investment, and other corporate sectors. Oil-palm interests also numerically dominate the RSPO Executive Board (http://www.rspo.org/Executive_Board.aspx). This imbalance contrasts with the leadership of trade groups such as the Forest Stewardship Council (http://www.fsc.org), which has a mandate to improve sustainability of timber production and whose membership consists of distinct Social, Environmental, and Economic chambers led by a board of directors that equitably represents each interest group. 2. The RSPO has yet to promote a blanket ban on destruction of peat forests and appears to be in denial about the alarming pace of peat-forest destruction (Koh et al. 2009a). Although it emphasizes that peat forest is less than optimal for oil-palm production (V. Rao, personal communication), the RSPO fails to recognize that these forests are concentrated in coastal areas in Southeast Asia and, because of their high accessibility and often-limited legal protection, are bearing the brunt of development activity (see Koh 2009; Koh et al. 2009a). Peat forests are also largely unoccupied by local communities, which means exploiting companies avoid land-rights conflicts (M. Bujang, personal communication). 3. Noncompliance by RSPO members may be widespread. For example, Greenpeace-International asserts that RSPO-certified palm oil used by food giants such as Nestlé, Procter & Gamble, and Unilever were grown on recently deforested lands, despite assurances to the contrary from the RSPO (Greenpeace 2008). Likewise, recent field surveys by Greenpeace-Indonesia in Kalimantan and Papua found substantial evidence of destruction of primary rainforests and peat forests by RSPO members or their immediate subsidiary companies (Fig. 1) (Maitar 2009). Recent forest destruction for oil-palm plantations in Indonesia by corporations that are members of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) or their immediate subsidiaries (in Indonesia, major corporations often spawn numerous subsidiary companies to circumvent laws limiting land ownership by large firms): (a) large-scale clearings at Lereh, Papua, in April 2009 by a direct subsidiary of RSPO member Sinar Mas; (b) forest burning near Semunying Jaya, Kalimantan, in April 2009 by RSPO member Duta Palma; and (c) draining and clearing of peat forest near Sentarum Lake National Park, West Kalimantan, in April 2009 by another direct subsidiary of Sinar Mas (photos a–c by Ardiles Rante, David Gilbert, and Edy Pumomo, respectively (images © Greenpeace). 4. The RSPO lacks teeth. With an annual budget of around US$500,000, paid by dues of its member organizations (V. Rao, personal communication), the RSPO has only a modest capacity to monitor the behavior of its members, including certified suppliers and processors that wield budgets many times larger. Moreover, the RSPO has repeatedly rejected the use of remote sensing, the most reliable and transparent method for monitoring the behavior of its members (cf. Turner et al. 2003). 5. Becoming an RSPO member is too easy. The RSPO allows palm-oil producers and processors to become ordinary members without actually having their operations certified, so long as they are putatively working toward certification and abiding by a rather loophole-filled code of conduct (http://rspo.org/Expected_Contribution_from_Members.aspx). In reality, this diminishes the significance of being an RSPO member and provides a false imprimatur of legitimacy for members that are performing poorly. Although we understand the RSPO needs to attract a wide range of actors in the palm-oil industry, the granting of ordinary membership to underperforming producers and processors threatens to erode the organization's credibility. 6. Expansion of oil palm plantations has greater climatic impacts than acknowledged by the RSPO. In addition to destroying Southeast Asian peat forests, expansion of oil palm is concentrated in the lowland tropics, often occurring at the expense of old-growth rainforests (Koh & Wilcove 2008). Tropical rainforests not only contain large carbon stocks, but also, via massive evapotranspiration, promote large-scale cloud cover that reflects much solar radiation back into space. Hence, hectare for hectare, tropical rainforests are probably far more important for mitigating harmful climate change than are other types of forests (Bala et al. 2007). 7. The RSPO is faced with weak market demand. The world's largest consumers of palm oil, China and India, have to date shown little interest in purchasing RSPO-certified palm oil (RSPO 2009), which is 8–15% more expensive than uncertified palm oil. Demand for certified palm oil is also weak among other consumers. For example, WWF-US recently found that just 1% of all RSPO-certified palm oil has been purchased since becoming available on the global market (http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0513-palm_oil_wwf_rspo.html). One factor contributing to weak demand is that RSPO criteria (especially those relating to greenhouse-gas emissions) are insufficient to fulfill European Union directives for renewable energy and fuel quality (http://www.r-e-a.net/policy/european-policy/Euro-legislation/renewable-energy-directive). The recent economic slowdown has probably also contributed to weak demand for certified palm oil as well as other ecocertified products. Rather than throwing the baby out with the bathwater, we recommend a push for serious reforms within the RSPO. First, the RSPO has a pro-industry bias that, under its present structure, appears to be compromising its broader mission to promote environmental sustainability. Although it is to be expected that palm-oil producers and users will numerically dominate the RSPO membership, we believe the organization should be restructured to give more weight and decision-making power to environmental organizations and experts. The Forest Stewardship Council, which has much more equal representation of environmental, social-welfare, and economic interests, is one potential model. Second, the RSPO needs to develop a real monitoring and enforcement capability, or to partner with an organization that has such capacities. Real-time remote sensing could be used, for instance, to ensure that its members are complying with strictures against deforestation. Such measures are already being used, even by modestly funded environmental groups, to monitor illegal deforestation in places such as the Amazon and Southeast Asia. A further challenge for monitoring is that palm oil from RSPO-certified plantations is often mixed with unsustainably produced palm oil, if not at the mill then during shipping. Such mixing destroys the chain of custody needed to ensure that those buying RSPO-certified palm oil are actually getting what they are paying for. Third, the RSPO should take a far stronger stand against forest destruction and the draining of peat swamps and strive to eliminate this as an option both for its members and nonmember companies. For instance, the RSPO should work more actively to curb forest loss in Malaysia (Wilcove & Koh 2010), where the government simultaneously acts as oil-palm producer, regulator, and enforcer, which creates potential conflicts of interest (Lopez & Laan 2008). At its 2008 general assembly, RSPO members agreed to submit annual “communications of progress” toward the RSPO sustainability criteria; this should make it more difficult for underperforming members to remain so indefinitely. Finally, the RSPO needs to have an independent watchdog group that monitors and critiques the organization, ensuring that it abides by its own strictures. If made up of reputable outside experts, such a watchdog could greatly increase credibility of the RSPO and its members to the public. The Forest Stewardship Council, for instance, is monitored by an independent group called “FSC-Watch” (http://www.fsc-watch.org), which is often critical of FSC projects. Some individual RSPO members currently use outside entities to perform external audits of their performance, but an independent watchdog group is needed for the entire organization to ensure that the audits themselves are suitably robust. For its part, the environmental community needs to do a much better job of convincing palm-oil users to buy certified sustainable palm oil. For corporations that use palm oil, this could be achieved via information campaigns and, if necessary, trade boycotts (Butler & Laurance 2008). Pressures can also be brought to bear on governments—such as those of the European Union and United States—to favor certified sustainable palm oil as part of their broader trade policies. These governments should also require products containing palm oil to be labeled as such (rather than allowing the generic term vegetable oil) so that consumers can make informed decisions. Without such carrots and sticks, there will be little incentive for those in the palm-oil industry to join the RSPO or for the RSPO to force them to clean up their act. Globally, <4% of the annual production of palm oil is currently certified sustainable (FAO 2009), and far too many corporations and consumers still buy palm oil grown at the expense of biodiverse tropical forests. This paper was stimulated by a multistakeholder conference on oil palm and biofuels in Singapore (May 2009) sponsored by the Environmental Leadership and Training Initiative (ELTI), a cooperative venture of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. L.P.K. was supported by an ETH Fellowship and the Swiss National Science Foundation. We thank A. Rante, D. Gilbert, and E. Pumomo for use of photographs and T. Gardner, R. Ewers, WWF-International, and three anonymous referees for helpful comments on the manuscript.

We introduce the AusTraits database - a compilation of values of plant traits for taxa in the Australian flora (hereafter AusTraits). AusTraits synthesises data on 448 traits across 28,640 taxa from field campaigns, published literature, taxonomic monographs, and individual taxon descriptions. Traits vary in scope from physiological measures of performance (e.g. photosynthetic gas exchange, water-use efficiency) to morphological attributes (e.g. leaf area, seed mass, plant height) which link to aspects of ecological variation. AusTraits contains curated and harmonised individual- and species-level measurements coupled to, where available, contextual information on site properties and experimental conditions. This article provides information on version 3.0.2 of AusTraits which contains data for 997,808 trait-by-taxon combinations. We envision AusTraits as an ongoing collaborative initiative for easily archiving and sharing trait data, which also provides a template for other national or regional initiatives globally to fill persistent gaps in trait knowledge.