United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute

Les recherches sur le rôle des armes à feu en matière d'actes de violence se fondent presqu'exclusivement sur des données statistiques américaines. Cela entraîne un certain nombre de limitations, étant donné que les taux d'homicides américains sont particulièrement élevés et que la proportion de ménages possédant une arme àfeu y est également très importante. Les données américaines ne connaissent de ce fait qu'une variance limitée, et ceci quant aux variables dépendantes (p. ex. les homicides) autant qu'indépendantes (le nombre de particuliers possédant une arme à feu.

Decreased inflammation and cardiovascular mortality are evident in patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease treated by online hemodiafiltration. Extracellular vesicles (EV) are mediators of cell-to-cell communication and contain different RNA types. This study investigated whether mixed online hemodiafiltration (mOL-HDF) beneficial effects associate with changes in the RNA content of plasma EV in chronic kidney disease patients. Thirty bicarbonate hemodialysis (BHD) patients were randomized 1:1 to continue BHD or switch to mOL-HDF. Concentration, size, and microRNA content of plasma EV were evaluated for 9 mo; we then studied EV effects on inflammation, angiogenesis, and apoptosis of endothelial cells (HUVEC) and on osteoblast mineralization of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). mOL-HDF treatment reduced different inflammatory markers, including circulating CRP, IL-6, and NGAL. All hemodialysis patients showed higher plasma levels of endothelial-derived EV than healthy subjects, with no significant differences between BHD and mOL-HDF. However, BHD-derived EV had an increased expression of the proatherogenic miR-223 with respect to healthy subjects or mOL-HDF. Compared with EV from healthy subjects, those from hemodialysis patients reduced angiogenesis and increased HUVEC apoptosis and VSMC calcification; however, all these detrimental effects were reduced with mOL-HDF with respect to BHD. Cell transfection with miR-223 mimic or antagomiR proved the role of this microRNA in EV-induced HUVEC and VSMC dysfunction. The switch from BHD to mOL-HDF significantly reduced systemic inflammation and miR-223 expression in plasma EV, thus improving HUVEC angiogenesis and reducing VSMC calcification.

The fast-paced field of synthetic biology is fundamentally changing the global biosecurity framework. Current biosecurity regulations and strategies are based on previous governance paradigms for pathogen-oriented security, recombinant DNA research, and broader concerns related to genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Many scholarly discussions and biosecurity practitioners are therefore concerned that synthetic biology outpaces established biosafety and biosecurity measures to prevent deliberate and malicious or inadvertent and accidental misuse of synthetic biology's processes or products. This commentary proposes three strategies to improve biosecurity: Security must be treated as an investment in the future applicability of the technology; social scientists and policy makers should be engaged early in technology development and forecasting; and coordination among global stakeholders is necessary to ensure acceptable levels of risk.

‘That it [the crime of non-forcible enlistment] exists for all present and future conflicts is declared for the first time by the judgments in this Court today’ were the words of Justice Robertson to mark the starting point of a new era in the development of international criminal law. On 20 June 2007, Trial Chamber II of the Special Court of Sierra Leone issued a historic decision convicting the three accused in the AFRC case on the count, among others, of ‘conscripting or enlisting children under the age of 15 years into armed forces or groups or using them to participate actively in hostilities’, constituting another serious violation of international humanitarian law pursuant to Article 4(c) of the Special Court Statute. This decision was not only historic for its content with regards to being the first endorsement by an international tribunal of the international criminalisation of the offence of child recruitment as contained in Article 4(c) of the Special Court Statute and in Articles 8(2)(b)(xxvi) and 8(2)(e)(vii) of the Rome Statute, from which Article 4(c) takes its wording, but was moreover extraordinary because Trial Chamber II endorsed the Appeals Chamber majority decision of May 2004 in Prosecutor against Sam Hinga Norman1 See Prosecutor against Sam Hinga Norman Decision on Preliminary motion based on lack of jurisdiction (child recruitment), Appeals Chamber, 31 May 2004, Case No. SCSL-2004-14AR72(E), at § 10–24. to confirm the status of customary international law of the crime of ‘conscripting or enlisting children under the age of 15 years into armed forces or groups or using them to participate actively in hostilities’ as covered by the above-mentioned law, and all of which entailing the individual criminal responsibility of the accused for the commission of the crime during the period covered by the Special Court's jurisdiction rationae temporis. This paper first embarks on an overview of the existing international legislation on the offence of child recruitment and its evolution towards criminalisation as a war crime today. This criminalisation is starting to create new international jurisprudence. Further, a review of the legal requirements for a practice to be conceived as part of customary international law will take us to a quick illustration of the actual state practice and opinio juris in relation to child recruitment and use of child soldiers, to conclude that the crime of child recruitment, i.e. ‘conscripting or enlisting children under the age of 15 years into armed forces or groups or using them to participate actively in hostilities’, has attained today the status of international customary law, becoming a success in the history of international criminal law. The new status of the crime as a non-codified norm of international value and the possibility of its legal use by courts regardless of state ratification of a specific international treaty will deter perpetrators from committing this international crime. However, in contrast with the universal definition of ‘child’ covered by the 1989 UN Child Convention, a legal gap remains: although sufficient state practice may exist with regard to a minimum age for child recruitment set at 18 years, an opinio juris in this connection is still lacking. End the recruitment and use of children in armed conflict contrary to international law, ensure their demobilization and effective disarmament and implement effective measures for their rehabilitation, physical and psychological recovery and reintegration into society. Put an end to impunity, prosecute those responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes and exclude, where feasible, these crimes from amnesty provisions and amnesty legislation, and ensure that whenever post-conflict truth and justice-seeking mechanisms are established, serious abuses involving children are addressed and that appropriate child-sensitive procedures are provided.2 Resolution adopted by the General Assembly S-27/2. A world fit for children. Twenty-seventh special session, Agenda items 8 and 9, UN DOC A/RES/S-27/2 (11 October 2002).

In 2012, Northern Mali was the theater of a Tuareg rebellion that has rapidly transformed into a much more complex armed conflict. The current situation is affected by various factors, such as the influence of regional geopolitical dynamics, the increasing presence of terrorist, pro-government or secessionist paramilitary groups, and the synergies between terrorism and organized crime. Through analyzing existing literature and field research, this article addresses the question: what factors play a role in the current conflict in Mali? Conflict evolution will be placed in the broader historical and geopolitical framework to then assess individual push and pull factors.

The ICVS started in the industrialized world. However, its potential for providing information on crime and victimization from developing countries was immediately apparent. Since 1990 the participation of developing countries became larger and larger. As of today, 29 developing countries took part in the ICVS at least once. More have already expressed their interest in joining the project and will probably do so in 2004. The ICVS database on developing countries contains a wealth of information that has no precedents. The survey can provide an overview on crime and victimization problems rarely available in developing countries. Although comparisons with the industrialized countries may be difficult, the ICVS database represents one of the best sources to measure crime-related issues across the world.This article presents results from 23 main cities from three global regions: Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Developing countries very often show high victimization rates, especially for property-related crime. Crimes are reported to the police less frequently than in the industrialized world. Some types of crime, such as car hijacking in Southern Africa, reflect special risks run by citizens in specific parts of the world.