University of Alaska System

Twenty years ago, an anthropological note described the current dimensions of applied behavior analysis as it was prescribed and practiced in 1968: It was, or ought to become, applied, behavioral, analytic, technological, conceptual, effective, and capable of appropriately generalized outcomes. A similar anthropological note today finds the same dimensions still prescriptive, and to an increasing extent, descriptive. Several new tactics have become evident, however, some in the realm of conceptual analysis, some in the sociological status of the discipline, and some in its understanding of the necessary systemic nature of any applied discipline that is to operate in the domain of important human behaviors.

Large variations in the composition, structure, and function of Arctic ecosystems are determined by climatic gradients, especially of growing‐season warmth, soil moisture, and snow cover. A unified circumpolar classification recognizing five types of tundra was developed. The geographic distributions of vegetation types north of 55°N, including the position of the forest limit and the distributions of the tundra types, could be predicted from climatology using a small set of plant functional types embedded in the biogeochemistry‐biogeography model BIOME4. Several palaeoclimate simulations for the last glacial maximum (LGM) and mid‐Holocene were used to explore the possibility of simulating past vegetation patterns, which are independently known based on pollen data. The broad outlines of observed changes in vegetation were captured. LGM simulations showed the major reduction of forest, the great extension of graminoid and forb tundra, and the restriction of low‐ and high‐shrub tundra (although not all models produced sufficiently dry conditions to mimic the full observed change). Mid‐Holocene simulations reproduced the contrast between northward forest extension in western and central Siberia and stability of the forest limit in Beringia. Projection of the effect of a continued exponential increase in atmospheric CO 2 concentration, based on a transient ocean‐atmosphere simulation including sulfate aerosol effects, suggests a potential for larger changes in Arctic ecosystems during the 21st century than have occurred between mid‐Holocene and present. Simulated physiological effects of the CO 2 increase (to >700 ppm) at high latitudes were slight compared with the effects of the change in climate.

This study assesses the utility of mixed methods designs that integrate qualitative and quantitative data through a transformative process. Two strategies for collecting qualitative and quantitative datasets are described, and processes by which they can be merged are presented in detail. Some of the benefits of mixed methods designs are summarized and the shortcomings and challenges inherent in quantitizing qualitative data in mixed methods research are delineated.

Trust, which occurs at the organizational and interpersonal levels, is generally believed to be important for the success ol interfirm relationships. We explore the effects of interaction between the two types of trust on negotiators' motivation to solve problems of adaptation in relational contracting. What we find is that too much trust is as bad as too little. Solutions are furthest from optimal when both organizational and interpersonal trust are high or both are low.

Previous studies of p53 have implicated cysteine residues in site-specific DNA binding via zinc coordination and redox regulation (P. Hainaut and J. Milner, Cancer Res. 53:4469-4473, 1993; T. R. Hupp, D. W. Meek, C. A. Midgley, and D. P. Lane, Nucleic Acids Res. 21:3167-3174, 1993). We show here that zinc binding and redox regulation are, at least in part, distinct determinants of the binding of p53 to DNA. Moreover, by substituting serine for each cysteine in murine p53, we have investigated the roles of individual cysteines in the regulation of p53 function. Substitution of serine for cysteine at position 40, 179, 274, 293, or 308 had little or no effect on p53 function. In contrast, replacement of cysteine at position 173, 235, or 239 markedly reduced in vitro DNA binding, completely blocked transcriptional activation, and led to a striking enhancement rather than a suppression of transformation by p53. These three cysteines have been implicated in zinc binding by X-ray diffraction studies (Y. Cho, S. Gorina, P.D. Jeffrey, and N.P. Pavletich, Science 265:346-355, 1994); our studies demonstrate the functional consequences of the inability of the central DNA-binding domain of p53 to studies demonstrate the functional consequences of the inability of the central DNA-binding domain of p53 to bind zinc. Lastly, substitutions for cysteines at position 121, 132, 138, or 272 partially blocked both transactivation and the suppression of transformation by p53. These four cysteines are located in the loop-sheet-helix region of the site-specific DNA-binding domain of p53. Like the cysteines in the zinc-binding region, therefore, these cysteines may cooperate to modulate the structure of the DNA-binding domain. Our findings argue that p53 is subject to more than one level of conformational modulation through oxidation-reduction of cysteines at or near the p53-DNA interface.

While there are several excellent books dealing with numerical analysis and analytical theory, students and faculty in numerical applications to ocean dynamics have to sift through hundreds of references. This monograph is an attempt to partly rectify this situation. Major chapters (II, III and IV) deal first with the basics and then go on to various applications. Instead of covering the vast field of ocean dynamics, this book focuses on transport equations (diffusion and advection), shallow water phenomena - tides, storm surges and tsunamis; three-dimensional time dependent oceanic motion; natural oscillations; and steady state phenomena. The aim of this book is two-fold; it gives an introduction to the application of finite-difference methods to ocean dynamics, and it also reviews more complex methods.

Spawning Pacific salmon (Onchorhynchus) transport marine-derived nutrients into streams and rivers. Subsequently, these marine-derived nutrients are incorporated into freshwater and terrestrial food webs through decomposition and predation. In this study, we investigated the influence of spawning Pacific salmon on terrestrial vegetation using stable isotope analysis. We hypothesized that terrestrial vegetation near streams or in areas with activity of piscivorous predators will show higher δ 15 N values compared with the same species growing elsewhere. The influence of spawning Pacific salmon as observed in elevated δ 15 N in terrestrial consumers was also investigated. Data collected from five species of plants in 18 transects from the stream to the upland forest (0 to 1000 m) indicated that a significant decrease in δ 15 N values occurred with increase in distance and relative elevation from the stream in three of the five plant species sampled. Values of δ 15 N in plants at sites actively used by piscivorous predators were higher than those of the same plants growing elsewhere, and similar to values measured near the stream. A decrease in values of δ 15 N and increase in values of δ 13 C in muscles of small mammals, with increase in distance from the stream, indicated that this signature was not a result of direct consumption of salmon carcasses but rather an indirect assimilation of marine-derived nitrogen through terrestrial vegetation. These results indicate that salmon carcasses contribute to the nitrogen pool available to riparian vegetation. The spatial distribution of the marine-derived nitrogen is apparently determined by flooding and the activity patterns of piscivorous predators. The importance of these nitrogen additions to the riparian zone, however, will depend on whether nitrogen is a limiting factor to plant growth in this system, and requires further investigation.

Abstract The North American gravity database as well as data-bases from Canada, Mexico, and the United States are being revised to improve their coverage, versatility, and accuracy. An important part of this effort is revising procedures for calculating gravity anomalies, taking into account our enhanced computational power, improved terrain databases and datums, and increased interest in more accurately defining long-wavelength anomaly components. Users of the databases may note minor differences between previous and revised database values as a result of these procedures. Generally, the differences do not impact the interpretation of local anomalies but do improve regional anomaly studies. The most striking revision is the use of the internationally accepted terrestrial ellipsoid for the height datum of gravity stations rather than the conventionally used geoid or sea level. Principal facts of gravity observations and anomalies based on both revised and previous procedures together with germane metadata will be available on an interactive Web-based data system as well as from national agencies and data centers. The use of the revised procedures is encouraged for gravity data reduction because of the widespread use of the global positioning system in gravity fieldwork and the need for increased accuracy and precision of anomalies and consistency with North American and national databases. Anomalies based on the revised standards should be preceded by the adjective “ellipsoidal” to differentiate anomalies calculated using heights with respect to the ellipsoid from those based on conventional elevations referenced to the geoid.

We review a variety of theories that have been proposed to explain why adults become sexually interested in and involved with children. All the theories appear to be directed to explaining one of four factors: (a) emotional congruence—why the adult has an emotional need to relate to a child; (b) sexual arousal—why the adult could become sexually aroused by a child; (c) blockage—why alternative sources of sexual and emotional gratification are not available; or (d) disinhibition—why the adult is not deterred from such an interest by normal prohibitions. We illustrate how these four factors can be combined to explain more of the diversity in pedophilic behavior than is usually explained by single factor theories. We also introduce the idea of viewing types of pedophilia on a continuum rather than in the traditional way of treating them as dichotomies.

The paper focuses on modeling well performance in shale-gas reservoirs using numerical simulation. Stimulation treatments in many shale-gas reservoirs create very complex fracture networks. These fracture networks are required to achieve economic production rates from rock with a matrix permeability of 1e-4 to 1e-5 md. The primary issues with modeling production from shale-gas reservoirs are accurately describing gas flow from the tight shale matrix into the fracture network, properly characterizing the matrix block size (or fracture density) and the conductivity of the network fractures, and evaluating the impacts of stress sensitive network fracture conductivity and gas desorption. This paper contrasts numerical reservoir simulation approaches using discrete modeling of the tight matrix and fracture network to that of dual porosity models. The paper illustrates that discretely gridding the network fractures is required to accurately model fluid flow in shalegas reservoirs (with complex fracture networks) and show that dual porosity solutions do not adequately capture the transient flow in the very low permeability matrix blocks. The paper also illustrates the impact of gas desorption on the production profile and ultimate gas recovery in various shale reservoirs, showing that in some shale-gas reservoirs desorption may be a minor component of gas recovery. In addition, the paper details the impact of stress sensitive network fracture conductivity on well productivity. The reservoir simulations show that as closure stress increases in the fracture network, significant reductions in network fracture conductivity are likely, decreasing ultimate gas recovery. However, the effects of stress sensitive network fracture conductivity may not be evident in the initial well performance (1-2 years) and could lead to optimistic gas recovery forecasts. The paper presents selected examples from Barnett shale horizontal wells that incorporate microseismic fracture mapping and production data to illustrate the application of the production modeling to evaluate well<br>performance in unconventional gas reservoirs.

Early successional processes in taiga forest ecosystems are believed to be primarily under abiotic controls. with biotic factors taking on greater importance later in the successional sequence. Here we report how moose (Alces alces L.), a dominant mammalian herbivore, exert major control over biogeochemical processes early in succession in the taiga of Alaska. Moose browsing affects soil chemistry and vegetation dynamics in ways that influence subsequent plant establishment and ultimately forest development. Browsing significantly changed soil organic matter pools, the composition of soil carbon fractions. and the stable isotope signature (δ 13 C and δ 15 N) of surface soils. These edaphic modifications were accompanied by changes in plant species composition that accelerate the successional trajectory. Thus, we contend that the rate of initial plant establishment and early forest succession in taiga is under significant control by mammalian herbivores.

We have analyzed the specific interaction of murine p53 with the consensus DNA-binding sequence 5'-AGACATGCCT-AGACATGCCT-3'. We used segments of p53 lacking the C-terminal, nonspecific DNA-binding domain because the presence of an autonomous nonspecific DNA-binding domain in wild-type p53 would complicate analysis of site-specific DNA binding. p53 amino acids 1 to 360 bind the consensus sequence as tetramers, and DNA binding promotes tetramer-tetramer interactions. p53 amino acids 80 to 290, lacking both the nonspecific DNA-binding and tetramerization domains, consistently bind consensus DNA as four monomers and only as four monomers. The virtual absence of stable binding by fewer than four monomers, even at low concentrations of p53, argues that binding by amino acids 80 to 290 is strongly cooperative. Because p53 tetramers and monomers do not simultaneously bind a single DNA consensus sequence, we conclude that a single tetramer of wild-type p53 engages the recognition sequences of the entire DNA consensus site. We further show that consensus DNA consists of two functional half-sites. Insertions, deletions, or rearrangements within the half-sites reduce DNA binding dramatically. In contrast, two half-sites separated by insertions bind p53 relatively efficiently. Insertions that place half-sites on opposite faces of the DNA helix reduce DNA binding more than insertions that place half-sites on the same face of the helix. Transcription studies, in vivo, strongly confirm the rotational specificity of the p53 interaction with consensus DNA. The ability of single p53 tetramers to bind separated DNA half-sites argues that p53 has a flexible tetramerization region.

Networked infrastructures operated under highly loaded conditions are vulnerable to catastrophic cascading failures. For example, electric power transmission systems must be designed and operated to reduce the risk of widespread blackouts caused by cascading failure. There is a need for analytically tractable models to understand and quantify the risks of cascading failure. We study a probabilistic model of loading dependent cascading failure by approximating the propagation of failures as a Poisson branching process. This leads to a criticality condition for the failure propagation. At criticality there are power tails in the probability distribution of cascade sizes and consequently considerable risks of widespread catastrophic failure. Avoiding criticality or super criticality is a key approach to reduce this risk. This approach of minimizing the propagation of failure after the cascade has started is complementary to the usual approach of minimizing the risk of the first few cascading failures. The analysis introduces a saturating form of the generalized Poisson distribution so that supercritical systems with a high probability of total failure can be considered.

Given a family of (hyper)graphs $\mathcal{F}$ a (hyper)graph $G$ is said to be $\mathcal{F}$-saturated if $G$ is $F$-free for any $F \in\mathcal{F}$ but for any edge e in the complement of $G$ the (hyper)graph $G + e$ contains some $F\in\mathcal{F}$. We survey the problem of determining the minimum size of an $\mathcal{F}$-saturated (hyper)graph and collect many open problems and conjectures.

This paper provides a review of our current understanding of the processes responsible for gravity wave saturation as well as the principal effects and variability of saturation in the lower and middle atmosphere. We discuss the theoretical and observational evidence for linear and nonlinear saturation processes and examine the consequences of saturation for wave amplitude limits, momentum and energy fluxes, the diffusion of heat and constituents, and the establishment of a near-universal vertical wavenumber spectrum. Recent studies of gravity wave variability are reviewed and are seen to provide insights into the significant causes of wave variability throughout the atmosphere.

Summary. Thermally efficient production of natural gas can be accomplished by the use of hot brine to dissociate solid gas hydrate deposits in the earth. The advantages of brine stimulation over steam or hot-water injection are lower energy requirements for reservoir heating and hydrate dissociation, reduced heat losses, higher gas production, and improved thermal efficiency. In addition, the problems of blockage of rock pores and wellbore because of reformation of hydrates during gas production can be avoided. A mathematical model for a hot-brine stimulation technique was developed to compute gas recovery and the energy-efficiency ratio (i.e., the ratio of energy content of produced gas to heat injected) for a reservoir containing gas hydrates. The effects of variations in reservoir porosity, hydrate-zone thickness, depth, salinity of brine, brine temperature, and brine injection rate on the energy-efficiency ratio and gas production were determined. A comparison brine and steam injection cases for the same heat injection rate shows higher gas production and energy-efficiency ratio for the brine case. Introduction Huge quantities of natural gas in the form of gas-hydrate deposits exist in many regions of the world. These deposits occur in the suboceanic sediments, as well as in the arctic regions. Gas hydrates contain about 170 to 180 std ft natural gas/ft [170 to 180 std m /M ] hydrate and represent a potential unconventional source of natural gas. Gas hydrates are relatively immobile and impermeable; hence they need to be dissociated into gas and wateto produce natural gas from hydrate reservoirs. To decompose hydrates, heat must be added to a hydrate reservoir. A portion of this heat is required to raise the temperature of the reservoir to the dissociation temperature. and another portion is required for converting hydrates into gas and water. The wellbore heat losses and heat losses to overburden/underburden formations should he considered in the calculation of the actual heat requirement. The heat required to dissociate hydrates is only a small fraction (about one-tenth) of the heat obtained by burning the gas produced from hydrates. In other words, the production of natural produced from hydrates. In other words, the production of natural gas from hydrates is a thermodynamically energy-efficient process. Several ways of dissociating natural gas hydrates have been suggested. These include thermal recovery techniques, such as steam injection, hot-water injection, and fireflooding; depressurization; and injection of chemicals, such as methanol or glycol, which cause hydrate destabilization. In thermal recovery techniques, the heat required to dissociate hydrates is supplied from an external source, whereas in other techniques, this energy comes from the surrounding formations. Each of these methods has its own merits and demerits. For example, in steam injection and fireflooding, heat losses can be severe for thinner hydrate zones, but for thicker zones (greater than 150 ft [15 m]) these techniques can be thermally efficient. Fire-flooding can cause dilution of gas to be produced and can result in a reduction in its energy value. Hot-water injection will yield lower heat losses than steam injection or fireflooding, but injectivity of water in hydrate reservoirs will govern the applicability of this method. The injection-water temperature should be low enough to avoid excessive heat losses, yet high enough to avoid unrealistically high injection rates. Hydraulic fracturing can be used to improve water injectivity but can result in lower heat-transfer efficiencies because of channeling effects. Use of methanol or glycol will be governed by economics, because large quantities of these expensive chemicals will be needed to ensure sufficient gas production. production. In the depressurization scheme, pressure reduction causes destabilization of hydrates. As hydrates dissociate, they absorb heat from the surrounding formations. The hydrates continue to dissociate until they generate enough gas to raise reservoir pressure to the equilibrium pressure of hydrates at the new temperature, which is lower than the original value. A temperature gradient is thus generated between hydrates (sink) and surrounding media (source), and heat flows to hydrates. The rate of dissociation of hydrates, however, is controlled by the rate of heat flux from the surrounding media or by the thermal conductivity of the surrounding rock matrix. Holder and Angert have shown that this technique yields excellent results, if hydrates are in conjunction with the free-gas zone. Combining these recovery schemes could also be beneficial; e.g., it may be possible to produce gas from hydrates by thermal stimulation followed by depressurization. Many questions need to be answered if gas is to be produced from hydrates. First. the form in which hydrates exist in a reservoir should be known. Hydrates may exist in different forms (all hydrates, excess water, excess ice, in conjunction with free gas, or in conjunction with oil) and in different types (massive, nodular, laminated, or dispersed). Each case will have a different effect on the method of production and on economics. Second, the saturation of hydrates in reservoir rock pores is unknown. Recently, well log interpretations have been used to determine porosity and hydrate saturation. Third, there could be several problems associated with gas production, such as pore blockage by hydrates or ice and blockage of production, such as pore blockage by hydrates or ice and blockage of the wellbore resulting from re-formation of hydrates during flow of gas through the production well. Despite these concerns, hydrates in the earth exhibit several char-acteristics, especially when compared with other unconvention a natural gas resources, that increase their importance as a potential energy resource and make their future production likely. These include higher concentration of gas in hydrated form, enormously large deposits of hydrates, and their widespread existence in the world. In addition, hydrates are likely to exist in conjunction with conventional gas and oil. The production of gas from such hydrate occurrences may be possible as a bonus during conventional production of gas or oil. It is in this situation that the first venture production of gas or oil. It is in this situation that the first venture of gas production from hydrates is expected. Brine Stimulation The use of hot brine for dissociation of hydrates seems to be an attractive recovery scheme for the following reasons. JPT P. 1379

Single-step and multistep undercooling experiments using both Fe,Mg-free and Fe,Mgbearing model granitic compositions were conducted to investigate the influence of mafic components on the crystallization of granitic melts. Crystallization of granite and granodiorite compositions in the system NaAlSi3O6-KAlSirOr-CaAlzSi2Os-SiOr-H2O produces assemblages containing one or more of the following phases: plagioclase, alkali feldspar, qloartz, silicate liquid, and vapor. The observed phase assemblages are generally in good agreement with equilibrium data reported in the literature on the same bulk compositions. With the addition of Fe and Mg to these bulk compositions six new phases participate in the equilibria (orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, biotite, hornblende, epidote, and magnetite). However, crystalline assemblages produced in phase equilibrium and crystal grofih experiments brought to the same fnal P-Z-X6,. conditions are in general not equivalent. In crystal-growth experiments, nucleation of the feldspars and quartz is greatly inhibited in the presence of Fe and Mg. Indeed, plagioclase is the only tectosilicate to nucleate in the granodiorite composition. Mafic phases nucleate and grow outside of their thermal stability fields as defined by the equilibrium phase diagrams. This contrast in mineral assemblages between the equilibrium and crystal growth experiments is in marked contrast to the results obtained for Fe- and Mg-free compositions. Perhaps the addition of Fe and Mg has caused a breakdown of the Si-O framework in the melt, thereby promoting the more rapid nucleation of the inoand phyllosilicates rather than the framework silicates. Border zones of granitic plutons, com-only rich in mafic minerals, may result from the more rapid nucleation of mafic phases from the silicate liquid. These zones are thought to develop by early crystallization along the walls of the pluton. Our results suggest the mafic phases should nucleate more quickly than the feldspars and quartz and thus should enrich the early crystallization products in ferromagnesian minerals.

Articulating the consequences of global climate change on terrestrial ecosystem biogeochemistry is a critical component of Arctic system studies. Leaf mineral nutrition responses of tundra plants is an important measure of changes in organismic and ecosystem attributes because leaf nitrogen and carbon contents effect photosynthesis, primary production, carbon budgets, leaf litter, and soil organic matter decomposition as well as herbivore forage quality. In this study, we used a longterm experiment where snow depth and summer temperatures were increased independently and together to articulate how a series of climate change scenarios would affect leaf N, leaf C, and leaf C:N for vegetation in dry and moist tussock tundra in northern Alaska, USA. Our findings were: 1) moist tundra vegetation is much more responsive to this suite of climate change scenarios than dry tundra with up to a 25% increase in leaf N; 2) life forms exhibit divergence in leaf C, N, and C:N with deciduous shrubs and graminoids having almost identical leaf N contents; 3) for some species, leaf mineral nutrition responses to these climate change scenarios are tundra type dependent ( Betula ), but for others ( Vaccinium vitis‐idaea ), strong responses are exhibited regardless of tundra type; and 4) the seasonal patterns and magnitudes of leaf C and leaf N in deciduous and evergreen shrubs were responsive to conditions of deeper snow in winter. Leaf N is was generally higher immediately after emergence from the deep snow experimental treatments and leaf N was higher during the subsequent summer and fall, and the leaf C:N were lower, especially in deciduous shrubs. These findings indicate that coupled increases in snow depth and warmer summer temperatures will alter the magnitudes and patterns of leaf mineral nutrition and that the long term consequences of these changes may feed‐forward and affect ecosystem processes.

Performance‐enhancing drug use by elite athletes is a modern sporting and social concern. We applied a long‐overdue theoretical framework, perceptual deterrence, to predicting the banned drug‐use decisions of 116 elite Australian footballers and soccer players. The strongest influence on athletes' hypothetical decisions to use drugs was their personal moral beliefs and health concerns, each of which also mediated the relationship between drug testing and athletes' decisions to use banned substances. Drug testing had little influence on athletes' imagined drug use decisions, although there are athletes for whom legal sanctions are necessary. The results have important implications for the way in which authorities fund and frame future anti‐drug initiatives; particularly the relationship between drug testing and athletes' personal moral beliefs.

This update reports a state-of-the-art discrete ordinate algorithm for monochromatic unpolarized radiative transfer in non-isothermal, vertically inhomogeneous, but horizontally homogeneous media. The physical processes included are Planckian thermal emission, scattering with arbitrary phase function, absorption, and surface bidirectional reflection. The system may be driven by parallel or isotropic diffuse radiation incident at the top boundary, as well as by internal thermal sources and thermal emission from the boundaries. Radiances, fluxes, and mean intensities are returned at user-specified angles and levels. DISORT has enjoyed considerable popularity in the atmospheric science and other communities since its introduction in 1988. Several new DISORT features are described in this update: intensity correction algorithms designed to compensate for the 8-M forward-peak scaling and obtain accurate intensities even in low orders of approximation; a more general surface bidirectional reflection option; and an exponential-linear approximation of the Planck function allowing more accurate solutions in the presence of large temperature gradients. DISORT has been designed to be an exemplar of good scientific software as well as a program of intrinsic utility. An extraordinary effort has been made to make it numerically well-conditioned, error-resistant, and user-friendly, and to take advantage of robust existing software tools. A thorough test suite is provided to verify the program both against published results, and for consistency where there are no published results. This careful attention to software design has been just as important in DISORT's popularity as its powerful algorithmic content.