University of Indianapolis

A concept for the optimization of nonlinear functions using particle swarm methodology is introduced. The evolution of several paradigms is outlined, and an implementation of one of the paradigms is discussed. Benchmark testing of the paradigm is described, and applications, including nonlinear function optimization and neural network training, are proposed. The relationships between particle swarm optimization and both artificial life and genetic algorithms are described.

The optimization of nonlinear functions using particle swarm methodology is described. Implementations of two paradigms are discussed and compared, including a recently developed locally oriented paradigm. Benchmark testing of both paradigms is described, and applications, including neural network training and robot task learning, are proposed. Relationships between particle swarm optimization and both artificial life and evolutionary computation are reviewed.

Evolutionary computation techniques, genetic algorithms, evolutionary strategies and genetic programming are motivated by the evolution of nature. A population of individuals, which encode the problem solutions are manipulated according to the rule of survival of the fittest through "genetic" operations, such as mutation, crossover and reproduction. A best solution is evolved through the generations. In contrast to evolutionary computation techniques, Eberhart and Kennedy developed a different algorithm through simulating social behavior (R.C. Eberhart et al., 1996; R.C. Eberhart and J. Kennedy, 1996; J. Kennedy and R.C. Eberhart, 1995; J. Kennedy, 1997). As in other algorithms, a population of individuals exists. This algorithm is called particle swarm optimization (PSO) since it resembles a school of flying birds. In a particle swarm optimizer, instead of using genetic operators, these individuals are "evolved" by cooperation and competition among the individuals themselves through generations. Each particle adjusts its flying according to its own flying experience and its companions' flying experience. We introduce a new parameter, called inertia weight, into the original particle swarm optimizer. Simulations have been done to illustrate the significant and effective impact of this new parameter on the particle swarm optimizer.

The particle swarm algorithm adjusts the trajectories of a population of "particles" through a problem space on the basis of information about each particle's previous best performance and the best previous performance of its neighbors. Previous versions of the particle swarm have operated in continuous space, where trajectories are defined as changes in position on some number of dimensions. The paper reports a reworking of the algorithm to operate on discrete binary variables. In the binary version, trajectories are changes in the probability that a coordinate will take on a zero or one value. Examples, applications, and issues are discussed.

This paper focuses on the engineering and computer science aspects of developments, applications, and resources related to particle swarm optimization. Developments in the particle swarm algorithm since its origin in 1995 are reviewed. Included are brief discussions of constriction factors, inertia weights, and tracking dynamic systems. Applications, both those already developed, and promising future application areas, are reviewed. Finally, resources related to particle swarm optimization are listed, including books, Web sites, and software. A particle swarm optimization bibliography is at the end of the paper.

We empirically study the performance of the particle swarm optimizer (PSO). Four different benchmark functions with asymmetric initial range settings are selected as testing functions. The experimental results illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of the PSO. Under all the testing cases, the PSO always converges very quickly towards the optimal positions but may slow its convergence speed when it is near a minimum. Nevertheless, the experimental results show that the PSO is a promising optimization method and a new approach is suggested to improve PSO's performance near the optima, such as using an adaptive inertia weight.

The performance of particle swarm optimization using an inertia weight is compared with performance using a constriction factor. Five benchmark functions are used for the comparison. It is concluded that the best approach is to use the constriction factor while limiting the maximum velocity Vmax to the dynamic range of the variable Xmax on each dimension. This approach provides performance on the benchmark functions superior to any other published results known by the authors.

To examine the overall state of metabolic control and current use of advanced diabetes technologies in the U.S., we report recent data collected on individuals with type 1 diabetes participating in the T1D Exchange clinic registry. Data from 16,061 participants updated between 1 September 2013 and 1 December 2014 were compared with registry enrollment data collected from 1 September 2010 to 1 August 2012. Mean hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) was assessed by year of age from <4 to >75 years. The overall average HbA1c was 8.2% (66 mmol/mol) at enrollment and 8.4% (68 mmol/mol) at the most recent update. During childhood, mean HbA1c decreased from 8.3% (67 mmol/mol) in 2-4-year-olds to 8.1% (65 mmol/mol) at 7 years of age, followed by an increase to 9.2% (77 mmol/mol) in 19-year-olds. Subsequently, mean HbA1c values decline gradually until ∼30 years of age, plateauing at 7.5-7.8% (58-62 mmol/mol) beyond age 30 until a modest drop in HbA1c below 7.5% (58 mmol/mol) in those 65 years of age. Severe hypoglycemia (SH) and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) remain all too common complications of treatment, especially in older (SH) and younger patients (DKA). Insulin pump use increased slightly from enrollment (58-62%), and use of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) did not change (7%). Although the T1D Exchange registry findings are not population based and could be biased, it is clear that there remains considerable room for improving outcomes of treatment of type 1 diabetes across all age-groups. Barriers to more effective use of current treatments need to be addressed and new therapies are needed to achieve optimal metabolic control in people with type 1 diabetes.

A fuzzy system is implemented to dynamically adapt the inertia weight of the particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO). Three benchmark functions with asymmetric initial range settings are selected as the test functions. The same fuzzy system has been applied to all three test functions with different dimensions. The experimental results illustrate that the fuzzy adaptive PSO is a promising optimization method, which is especially useful for optimization problems with a dynamic environment.

Using particle swarms to track and optimize dynamic systems is described. Issues related to tracking and optimizing dynamic systems are briefly reviewed. Three kinds of dynamic systems are defined for the purposes of this paper. One of them is chosen for preliminary analysis using the particle swarm on the parabolic benchmark function. Successful tracking of a 10-dimensional parabolic function with a severity of up to 1.0 is demonstrated. A number of issues related to tracking and optimizing dynamic systems with particle swarms are identified. Directions for future research and applications are suggested.

OBJECTIVE: To report long-term efficacy and safety results of the SANTE trial investigating deep brain stimulation of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus (ANT) for treatment of localization-related epilepsy. METHODS: This long-term follow-up is a continuation of a previously reported trial of 5- vs 0-V ANT stimulation. Long-term follow-up began 13 months after device implantation with stimulation parameters adjusted at the investigators' discretion. Seizure frequency was determined using daily seizure diaries. RESULTS: The median percent seizure reduction from baseline at 1 year was 41%, and 69% at 5 years. The responder rate (≥50% reduction in seizure frequency) at 1 year was 43%, and 68% at 5 years. In the 5 years of follow-up, 16% of subjects were seizure-free for at least 6 months. There were no reported unanticipated adverse device effects or symptomatic intracranial hemorrhages. The Liverpool Seizure Severity Scale and 31-item Quality of Life in Epilepsy measure showed statistically significant improvement over baseline by 1 year and at 5 years (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Long-term follow-up of ANT deep brain stimulation showed sustained efficacy and safety in a treatment-resistant population. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This long-term follow-up provides Class IV evidence that for patients with drug-resistant partial epilepsy, anterior thalamic stimulation is associated with a 69% reduction in seizure frequency and a 34% serious device-related adverse event rate at 5 years.

Activity monitoring in home environments has become increasingly important and has the potential to support a broad array of applications including elder care, well-being management, and latchkey child safety. Traditional approaches involve wearable sensors and specialized hardware installations. This paper presents device-free location-oriented activity identification at home through the use of existing WiFi access points and WiFi devices (e.g., desktops, thermostats, refrigerators, smartTVs, laptops). Our low-cost system takes advantage of the ever more complex web of WiFi links between such devices and the increasingly fine-grained channel state information that can be extracted from such links. It examines channel features and can uniquely identify both in-place activities and walking movements across a home by comparing them against signal profiles. Signal profiles construction can be semi-supervised and the profiles can be adaptively updated to accommodate the movement of the mobile devices and day-to-day signal calibration. Our experimental evaluation in two apartments of different size demonstrates that our approach can achieve over 96% average true positive rate and less than 1% average false positive rate to distinguish a set of in-place and walking activities with only a single WiFi access point. Our prototype also shows that our system can work with wider signal band (802.11ac) with even higher accuracy.

We present a tutorial on the properties of the new ideal circuit element, a memristor. By definition, a memristor M relates the charge q and the magnetic flux $\phi$ in a circuit, and complements a resistor R, a capacitor C, and an inductor L as an ingredient of ideal electrical circuits. The properties of these three elements and their circuits are a part of the standard curricula. The existence of the memristor as the fourth ideal circuit element was predicted in 1971 based on symmetry arguments, but was clearly experimentally demonstrated just this year. We present the properties of a single memristor, memristors in series and parallel, as well as ideal memristor-capacitor (MC), memristor-inductor (ML), and memristor-capacitor-inductor (MCL) circuits. We find that the memristor has hysteretic current-voltage characteristics. We show that the ideal MC (ML) circuit undergoes non-exponential charge (current) decay with two time-scales, and that by switching the polarity of the capacitor, an ideal MCL circuit can be tuned from overdamped to underdamped. We present simple models which show that these unusual properties are closely related to the memristor's internal dynamics. This tutorial complements the pedagogy of ideal circuit elements (R,C, and L) and the properties of their circuits.

The development and application of chiral phase-transfer catalysis (PTC) for the enantioselective synthesis of optically active alpha-amino acid derivatives using achiral Schiff base esters developed in the author's laboratory and by others is reviewed. Phase-transfer catalysts derived from the Cinchona alkaloids have been exploited as inexpensive and attractive organocatalysts in the chiral PTC process. The recent evolution and use of these and other catalytic systems is described.

Abstract The popularity and value of qualitative research has increasingly been recognized in health and pharmacy services research. Although there is certainly an appropriate place in qualitative research for other data collection methods, a primary benefit of the semi‐structured interview is that it permits interviews to be focused while still giving the investigator the autonomy to explore pertinent ideas that may come up in the course of the interview, which can further enhance understanding of the pharmacy service being assessed. The purpose of this narrative review is to summarize methodological considerations and procedures for conducting semi‐structured interviews in pharmacy services research. In this article, we propose the Seven Steps to Conducting, Analyzing, and Reporting Semi‐Structured Interview Data (7S CARS‐SID) for Pharmacy Services Research. While many of the proposed steps can be applied to various qualitative methods and types of research, this narrative review intentionally focuses discussion on semi‐structured interviews and pharmacy services research. These seven steps along with the cited resources and applicable examples provide novice qualitative researchers with a step‐by‐step introductory guide to conducting qualitative pharmacy services research using semi‐structured interview methods. Finally, the 7S CARS‐SID for Pharmacy Services Research is intended to be a tool for assisting readers, reviewers, and editors of the Journal of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy to better understand the methodology behind qualitative research papers using semi‐structured interview methods.

BACKGROUND: Guidelines recommend exercise for cardiovascular health, although evidence from trials linking exercise to cardiovascular health through intermediate biomarkers remains inconsistent. We performed a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials to quantify the impact of exercise on cardiorespiratory fitness and a variety of conventional and novel cardiometabolic biomarkers in adults without cardiovascular disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: Two researchers selected 160 randomized controlled trials (7487 participants) based on literature searches of Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Central (January 1965 to March 2014). Data were extracted using a standardized protocol. A random-effects meta-analysis and systematic review was conducted to evaluate the effects of exercise interventions on cardiorespiratory fitness and circulating biomarkers. Exercise significantly raised absolute and relative cardiorespiratory fitness. Lipid profiles were improved in exercise groups, with lower levels of triglycerides and higher levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and apolipoprotein A1. Lower levels of fasting insulin, homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance, and glycosylated hemoglobin A1c were found in exercise groups. Compared with controls, exercise groups had higher levels of interleukin-18 and lower levels of leptin, fibrinogen, and angiotensin II. In addition, we found that the exercise effects were modified by age, sex, and health status such that people aged <50 years, men, and people with type 2 diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, or metabolic syndrome appeared to benefit more. CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis showed that exercise significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness and some cardiometabolic biomarkers. The effects of exercise were modified by age, sex, and health status. Findings from this study have significant implications for future design of targeted lifestyle interventions.

Increased vascular permeability and excessive neovascularization are the hallmarks of endothelial dysfunction, which can lead to diabetic macular edema and proliferative diabetic retinopathy in the eye. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is an important mediator of ocular neovascularization and a known vasopermeability factor in nonocular tissues. In these studies, we demonstrate that intravitreal injection of VEGF rapidly activates protein kinase C (PKC) in the retina at concentrations observed clinically, inducing membrane translocation of PKC isoforms alpha, betaII, and delta and >threefold increases in retinal vasopermeability in vivo. The effect of VEGF on retinal vascular permeability appears to be mediated predominantly by the beta-isoform of PKC with >95% inhibition of VEGF-induced permeability by intravitreal or oral administration of a PKC beta-isoform-selective inhibitor that did not inhibit histamine-mediated effects. These studies represent the first direct demonstration that VEGF can increase intraocular vascular permeability through activation of PKC in vivo and suggest that oral pharmacological therapies involving PKC beta-isoform-selective inhibitors may prove efficacious for the treatment of VEGF-associated ocular disorders such as diabetic retinopathy.

Forensic anthropologists often rely on the state of decomposition to estimate the postmortem interval (PMI) in a human remains case. The state of decomposition can provide much information about the PMI, especially when decomposition is treated as a semi-continuous variable and used in conjunction with accumulated-degree-days (ADD). This preliminary study demonstrates a supplemental method of determining the PMI based on scoring decomposition using a point-based system and taking into account temperatures in which the remains were exposed. This project was designed to examine the ways that forensic anthropologists could improve their PMI estimates based on decomposition by using a more quantitative approach. A total of 68 human remains cases with a known date of death were scored for decomposition and a regression equation was calculated to predict ADD from decomposition score. ADD accounts for approximately 80% of the variation in decomposition. This study indicates that decomposition is best modeled as dependent on accumulated temperature, not just time.

The transcription factor NF-κB is a critical regulator of immune and inflammatory responses. In mammals, the NF-κB/Rel family comprises five members: p50, p52, p65 (Rel-A), c-Rel, and Rel-B proteins, which form homo- or heterodimers and remain as an inactive complex with the inhibitory molecules called IκB proteins in resting cells. Two distinct NF-κB signaling pathways have been described: 1) the canonical pathway primarily activated by pathogens and inflammatory mediators, and 2) the noncanonical pathway mostly activated by developmental cues. The most abundant form of NF-κB activated by pathologic stimuli via the canonical pathway is the p65:p50 heterodimer. Disproportionate increase in activated p65 and subsequent transactivation of effector molecules is integral to the pathogenesis of many chronic diseases such as the rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, and even neurodegenerative pathologies. Hence, the NF-κB p65 signaling pathway has been a pivotal point for intense drug discovery and development. This review begins with an overview of p65-mediated signaling followed by discussion of strategies that directly target NF-κB p65 in the context of chronic inflammation.

Computerized tomography is used as an aid in geophysical exploration. With this method, detailed pictures of electromagnetic properties in the regions between pairs of boreholes can be reconstructed. The spatial distribution of attenuation or propagation velocity is calculated from line integrals along rays in the plane between boreholes, and displayed as a digital picture. In principle, the transmission of seismic data can also be analyzed by this method as long as it obeys the line integral model. Iterative solution techniques, similar to those used in medical X-ray tomography are applied to solve the large sets of linear equations relating the line integral data and the remote observables. A straight-line ray optics model was used for energy propagation between boreholes. The performance of the reconstruction algorithm is demonstrated using computer-generated data and it is then applied to experimental data collected by continuous-wave electromagnetic transmission probing. Experimental attenuation reconstructions are presented of a proposed underground urban mass-transit site. Both lateral and vertical variations are displayed using these methods.