University of Michigan–Flint

Kenneth W. Thomas, Betty A. Velthouse, Cognitive Elements of Empowerment: An "Interpretive" Model of Intrinsic Task Motivation, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Oct., 1990), pp. 666-681

Although one of the main reasons for the interest in organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) is the potential consequences of these behaviors, no study has been reported that summarizes the research regarding the relationships between OCBs and their outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide a meta-analytic examination of the relationships between OCBs and a variety of individual- and organizational-level outcomes. Results, based on 168 independent samples (N = 51,235 individuals), indicated that OCBs are related to a number of individual-level outcomes, including managerial ratings of employee performance, reward allocation decisions, and a variety of withdrawal-related criteria (e.g., employee turnover intentions, actual turnover, and absenteeism). In addition, OCBs were found to be related (k = 38; N = 3,611 units) to a number of organizational-level outcomes (e.g., productivity, efficiency, reduced costs, customer satisfaction, and unit-level turnover). Of interest, somewhat stronger relationships were observed between OCBs and unit-level performance measures in longitudinal studies than in cross-sectional studies, providing some evidence that OCBs are causally related to these criteria. The implications of these findings for both researchers and practitioners are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).

This article presents a cognitive model of empowerment. Here, empowerment is defined as increased intrinsic task motivation, and our subsequent model identifies four cognitions (task assessments) as the basis for worker empowerment: sense of impact, competence, meaningfulness, and choice. Adopting an interpretive perspective, we have used the model also to describe cognitive processes through which workers reach these conclusions. Central to the processes we describe are workers' interpretive styles and global beliefs. Both preliminary evidence for the model and general implications for research are discussed.

The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Horvath & Greenberg, Citation1989) and the Working Alliance Inventory–Short (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, Citation1989) are widely used measures of alliance in therapy. This study evaluated the factor structure of the WAI and WAI-S with confirmatory factor analysis in two relatively large samples (Ns = 231 and 235). The hypothesized structures were not confirmed. An alternative 12-item WAI (WAI-SR), consistent with Bordin's (Citation1979) model of alliance, was developed in one sample and cross-validated in the other. The WAI-SR better differentiated Goal, Task, and Bond alliance dimensions and correlated well with other alliance measures. The Task dimension was particularly salient, as expected based on Bordin's original theory. Additional psychometric properties and item response theory analysis of the WAI-SR are presented. Zusammenfassung Eine Revision der Kurzform des Working Alliance Inventars (WAI-SR) Das Arbeitsbeziehungsinventar (Working Alliance Inventory, WAI; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989) und die Kurzform des Arbeitsbeziehungsinventars (Working Alliance Inventory-Short, WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) sind häufig verwendete Masse der therapeutischen Allianz. Diese Studie hat die Faktorstruktur von WAI und WAI-S mit Hilfe von konfirmatorischer Faktoranalyse in zwei relativ großen Stichproben (n = 231 und 235) bewertet. Die hypothetisch angenommenen Strukturen ergaben sich dabei nicht. Eine alternatives 12-Item WAI (WAI-SR) in Übereinstimmung mit Bordins (1979) Annahmen zur Allianz, wurde in einer Stichprobe erprobt und in der anderen kreuzvalidiert. Das WAI-SR differenzierte besser Ziele, Aufgaben und therapeutische Bindungsdimension und korrelierte auch mit anderen Allianzmassen. Besonders deutlich war die Aufgabendimension, wie das auch nach Bordins ursprünglicher Theorie erwartet werden konnte. Es werden zusätzliche psychometrische Kennwerte und eine Analyse nach der Item-Response-Theorie vorgestellt. Résumé Développement et validation de la version courte révisée de l'inventaire de l'alliance de travail L'inventaire de l'alliance de travail (WAI; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989) et sa version courte (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) sont des mesures de l'alliance largement utilisées en thérapie. Cette étude évalue la structure factorielle de la WAI et de la WAI-S sur la base d'une analyse factorielle confirmatoire dans deux échantillons relativement grands (N = 231 et 235). La structure attendue n'est pas confirmée. Une version alternative à 12 items (WAI-SR), consistante avec le modèle de Bordin (1979) a été développée à partir d'un des échantillons et validée sur l'autre. Le WAI-SR différencie mieux les dimensions d'alliance but, tâche et lien et corrèle bien avec d'autres mesures d'alliance. La dimension tâche était particulièrement saillante, comme attendu selon la théorie originale de Bordin. Des propriétés psychométriques additionnelles et l'analyse de la réponse théorique aux items du WAI-SR sont présentées. Resumen Sviluppo e validazione di una versione abbreviata modificata del Questionario di funzionamento dell' alleanza (WAI–Working Alliance Inventory). Il Questionario di funzionamento dell' Alleanza (WAI; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989) e il Questionario di funzionamento dell' Alleanza _/abbreviatot (WAI_S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) sono misure usate ampiamente sull'alleanza nella terapia. Questo studio ha valutato la struttura di fattore della WAI e della WAI_S con l'analisi fattoriale confermativa in due campioni (Ns_/231 e 235). Le strutture supposte non sono state confermate. Un' alternativa della WAI a 12 items (Wai-Sr), in accordo con il modello del'alleanza di Bordin (1979), è stato sviluppato in uno dei due campioni e incrociato e validato nell'altro. La Wai-Sr meglio differenziava l'obiettivo, il compito ed il vincolo e ben correlava con le altre misure dell'alleanza.La dimensione del compito risultava particolarmente saliente, come previsto nella teoria originale di Bordin. Sono presentate le proprietà, l'analisi psicometriche supplementari e di teoria della Wai-Sr. Resumo Desenvolvimento e validação da versão curta revista do Inventário da Aliança Terapêutica O Inventário da Aliança Terapêutica (WAI; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989) e a sua versão reduzida (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) são frequentemente utilizadas na avaliação da aliança em terapia. Este estudo avaliou a estrutura factorial do WAI e WAI-S, utilizando análise factorial confirmatória, em duas amostras (Ns_ 231 e 235). A estrutura hipotética não foi confirmada. Uma escala WAI alternativa de 12 itens (WAI-SR), consistente com o modelo de aliança de Bordin (1979), foi desenvolvida numa amostra e validada na outra. O WAI-SR diferenciou melhor as dimensões da aliança (Objectivos, Tarefas e Relação) e correlacionou-se bem com outras medidas da aliança A dimensão da Tarefa foi particularmente saliente, tal como esperado na teoria original de Bordin. Adicionalmente, são apresentadas propriedades psicométricas e análises de teoria de item resposta da WAI-SR Sommario Desarrollo y validación de una versión corta revisada del Inventario de Alianza de trabajo. El Inventario de Alianza de trabajo (Working Alliance Inventory, WAI, Horvath y Greenberg, 1989) y el Inventario de Alianza de trabajo- Breve (Working Alliance Inventory_Short, WAI-S; Tracey y Kokotovic, 1989) son medidas ampliamente usadas de alianza terapéutica. Este estudio evaluó el factor estructura de la WAI y WAI-S con un análisis factorial confirmatorio en dos muestras (Ns_231 y 235). Las estructuras hipotetizadas no fueron confirmadas. En una de las muestras se desarrolló y en la otra se validó en forma cruzada (cross-validated) un item 12 alternativo para la WAI (WAI-SR), consistente con el modelo de Bordin (1979) para la alianza. El WAI-SR diferenció mejor las dimensiones del Objetivo, la Tarea (Task) y la alianza vincular (Bond alliance) y se correlacionó bien con mediciones de otras alianzas. La dimensión Tarea (Task) fue particularmente relevante, como se esperaba según la teoría original de Bordin. Se presentan propiedades psicométricas adicionales y análisis teóricos de los items de respuesta del WAI-SR. This article is based in part on J. Arthur Gillaspy's doctoral dissertation completed with the supervision of Michael Duffy and Bruce Thompson, Texas A & M University. The authors thank Alex W. Barends for helpful comments, Adam Horvath for support and advice, and Catherine Hiltz for technical assistance. This work was supported in part by a generous anonymous donor. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2004 meeting of the North American Society for Psychotherapy Research, Zion, Utah. Notes 1. The variance–covariance matrices for both samples are available on request. 2. The complete PCA pattern, structure, and component correlation matrices are available from the present authors upon request.

In this article we use a single unifying framework to analyze the sources of profits to a wide spectrum of return-based trading strategies implemented in the literature. We show that less than 50% of the 120 strategies implemented in the article yield statistically significant profits and, unconditionally, momentum and contrarian strategies are equally likely to be successful. However, when we condition on the return horizon (short, medium, or long) of the strategy, or the time period during which it is implemented, two patterns emerge. A momentum strategy is usually profitable at the medium (3- to 12-months) horizon, while a contrarian strategy nets statistically significant profits at long horizons, but only during the 1926–1947 subperiod. More importantly, our results show that the cross-sectional variation in the mean returns of individual securities included in these strategies play an important role in their profitability. The cross-sectional variation can potentially account for the profitability of momentum strategies and it is also responsible for attenuating the profits from price reversals to long-horizon contrarian strategies.

Abstract Systematic assessments of species extinction risk at regular intervals are necessary for informing conservation action 1,2 . Ongoing developments in taxonomy, threatening processes and research further underscore the need for reassessment 3,4 . Here we report the findings of the second Global Amphibian Assessment, evaluating 8,011 species for the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. We find that amphibians are the most threatened vertebrate class (40.7% of species are globally threatened). The updated Red List Index shows that the status of amphibians is deteriorating globally, particularly for salamanders and in the Neotropics. Disease and habitat loss drove 91% of status deteriorations between 1980 and 2004. Ongoing and projected climate change effects are now of increasing concern, driving 39% of status deteriorations since 2004, followed by habitat loss (37%). Although signs of species recoveries incentivize immediate conservation action, scaled-up investment is urgently needed to reverse the current trends.

Parasocial interaction and parasocial relationship are often conflated conceptually and methodologically, leaving researchers unclear as to which concept is being tapped. This research clarifies these concepts and experimentally compares the most common measure of parasocial interaction, the Parasocial Interaction Scale (PSI-Scale), with a newer measure, the Experience of Parasocial Interaction Scale (EPSI-Scale). Participants (N = 383) viewed a brief videorecording of a woman who either bodily addressed the viewer or not, then completed a questionnaire. The EPSI-Scale was a better measure of parasocial interaction, understood as a within-viewing experience of mutual awareness, whereas the PSI-Scale may measure short- or long-term liking, or something else. To avoid conceptual and empirical confusion, researchers must choose measures with greater care.

Many advertisers adopt the integrated marketing communications perspective that emphasizes the importance of synergy in planning multimedia activities. However, the role of synergy in multimedia communications is not well understood. Thus, the authors investigate the theoretical and empirical effects of synergy by extending a commonly used dynamic advertising model to multimedia environments. They illustrate how advertisers can estimate and infer the effectiveness of and synergy among multimedia communications by applying Kalman filtering methodology. Using market data on Dockers brand advertising, the authors first calibrate the extended model to establish the presence of synergy between television and print advertisements in consumer markets. Second, they derive theoretical propositions to understand the impact of synergy on media budget, media mix, and advertising carryover. One of the propositions reveals that as synergy increases, advertisers should not only increase the media budget but also allocate more funds to the less effective activity. The authors also discuss the implications for advertising overspending. Finally, the authors generalize the model to include multiple media, differential carryover, and asymmetrical synergy, and they identify topics for further research.

Abstract This paper develops and tests an option-style valuation model, whose main prediction is that equity value is a convex function of both earnings and book value, where the function depends on the relative values of earnings and book value. Earnings provides a measure of how the firm's resources are currently used. Book value provides a measure of the value of the firm's resources, independent of how the resources are currently used. When the ratio earnings/book value is high, the firm is likely to continue its current way of using resources, and earnings is the more important determinant of equity value. When earnings/book value is low, the firm is more likely to exercise the option to adapt its resources to a superior alternative use, and book value becomes the more important determinant of equity value. Evidence from a variety of empirical specifications is consistent with the convexity prediction.

Translating the Devil: Religion and Modernity among the Ewe in Ghana. Birgit Meyer. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1999. ix. 265 pp., maps, tables, appendix, notes, glossary, bibliography, index.

Research has shown that gender differences in self-perceptions exist. However, interpretational ambiguities make it impossible to determine whether these gender differences are due to the operation of biases. The present research investigated whether gender differences in biased selfperceptions exist by assessing the accuracy of posttask self-evaluations of performance. In accordance with self-consistency theory, it was hypothesized that Ss' expectancies affect their posttask self-evaluations. For example, men who generally have high expectancies on masculine-gendertyped tasks were hypothesized to evidence overly positive self-evaluations. Women, who generally hold low expectancies on masculine tasks, were hypothesized to hold overly negative self-evaluations. The results confirmed that self-consistency tendencies can partially explain self-perception biases. The implications of these findings for women's achievement behavior and self-confidence are discussed.

Abstract A comprehensive study of various mathematical programming methods for structural optimization is presented. In recent years, many modern optimization techniques and convergence results have been developed in the field of mathematical programming. The aim of this paper is twofold: (a) to discuss the applicability of modern optimization techniques to structural design problems, and (b) to present mathematical programming methods from a unified and design engineers' viewpoint. Theoretical aspects are considered here, while numerical results of test problems are discussed in a companion paper. Special features possessed by structural optimization problems, together with recent developments in mathematical programming (recursive quadratic programming methods, global convergence theory), have formed a basis for conducting the study. Some improvements of existing methods are noted and areas for future investigation are discussed.

Volatility in equity markets is asymmetric: contemporaneous return and conditional return volatility are negatively correlated. In this article I develop an asymmetric volatility model where dividend growth and dividend volatility are the two state variables of the economy. The model allows both the leverage effect and the volatility feedback effect, the two popular explanations of asymmetry. The model is estimated by the simulated method of moments. I find that both the leverage effect and volatility feedback are important determinants of asymmetric volatility, and volatility feedback is significant both statistically and economically.

We observe a signal for the doubly charmed baryon ${\ensuremath{\Xi}}_{cc}^{+}$ in the charged decay mode ${\ensuremath{\Xi}}_{cc}^{+}\ensuremath{\rightarrow}{\ensuremath{\Lambda}}_{c}^{+}{K}^{\ensuremath{-}}{\ensuremath{\pi}}^{+}$ in data from SELEX, the charm hadroproduction experiment at Fermilab. We observe an excess of 15.9 events over an expected background of $6.1\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}0.5$ events, a statistical significance of $6.3\ensuremath{\sigma}$. The observed mass of this state is $3519\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}1\text{ }\text{ }\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}/{c}^{2}$. The Gaussian mass width of this state is $3\text{ }\text{ }\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}/{c}^{2}$, consistent with resolution; its lifetime is less than 33 fs at 90% confidence.

Examines the applicability of alternative measures of service quality in the developing economy of India and assesses related issues in that context. Based on data gathered from customers of two major banks, overall results support a multidimensional construct of service quality and suggest that the SERVQUAL scale provides greater diagnostic information than the SERVPERF scale. However, the five‐factor conceptualization of SERVQUAL does not seem to be totally applicable, and no significant difference was found in the predictive ability of the two measures. Further, although SERVQUAL and SERVPERF have identical convergent validity, SERVPERF appears to have higher discriminant validity than SERVQUAL.

In this paper we use GARCH-M methods to test four hypotheses about the effects of real and nominal uncertainty on average inflation and output growth in the United States from 1948 to 1996. We find no evidence that higher inflation uncertainty or higher output growth uncertainty raises the average inflation rate. We also find no support for the idea that more risky output growth is associated with a higher average real growth rate. Our key result is that in a variety of models and sample periods, inflation uncertainty significantly lowers real output growth. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

BACKGROUND: For more than three decades, the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) has provided a framework to quantify health loss due to diseases, injuries, and associated risk factors. This paper presents GBD 2023 findings on disease and injury burden and risk-attributable health loss, offering a global audit of the state of world health to inform public health priorities. This work captures the evolving landscape of health metrics across age groups, sexes, and locations, while reflecting on the remaining post-COVID-19 challenges to achieving our collective global health ambitions. METHODS: The GBD 2023 combined analysis estimated years lived with disability (YLDs), years of life lost (YLLs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 375 diseases and injuries, and risk-attributable burden associated with 88 modifiable risk factors. Of the more than 310 000 total data sources used for all GBD 2023 (about 30% of which were new to this estimation round), more than 120 000 sources were used for estimation of disease and injury burden and 59 000 for risk factor estimation, and included vital registration systems, surveys, disease registries, and published scientific literature. Data were analysed using previously established modelling approaches, such as disease modelling meta-regression version 2.1 (DisMod-MR 2.1) and comparative risk assessment methods. Diseases and injuries were categorised into four levels on the basis of the established GBD cause hierarchy, as were risk factors using the GBD risk hierarchy. Estimates stratified by age, sex, location, and year from 1990 to 2023 were focused on disease-specific time trends over the 2010-23 period and presented as counts (to three significant figures) and age-standardised rates per 100 000 person-years (to one decimal place). For each measure, 95% uncertainty intervals [UIs] were calculated with the 2·5th and 97·5th percentile ordered values from a 250-draw distribution. FINDINGS: Total numbers of global DALYs grew 6·1% (95% UI 4·0-8·1), from 2·64 billion (2·46-2·86) in 2010 to 2·80 billion (2·57-3·08) in 2023, but age-standardised DALY rates, which account for population growth and ageing, decreased by 12·6% (11·0-14·1), revealing large long-term health improvements. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) contributed 1·45 billion (1·31-1·61) global DALYs in 2010, increasing to 1·80 billion (1·63-2·03) in 2023, alongside a concurrent 4·1% (1·9-6·3) reduction in age-standardised rates. Based on DALY counts, the leading level 3 NCDs in 2023 were ischaemic heart disease (193 million [176-209] DALYs), stroke (157 million [141-172]), and diabetes (90·2 million [75·2-107]), with the largest increases in age-standardised rates since 2010 occurring for anxiety disorders (62·8% [34·0-107·5]), depressive disorders (26·3% [11·6-42·9]), and diabetes (14·9% [7·5-25·6]). Remarkable health gains were made for communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional (CMNN) diseases, with DALYs falling from 874 million (837-917) in 2010 to 681 million (642-736) in 2023, and a 25·8% (22·6-28·7) reduction in age-standardised DALY rates. During the COVID-19 pandemic, DALYs due to CMNN diseases rose but returned to pre-pandemic levels by 2023. From 2010 to 2023, decreases in age-standardised rates for CMNN diseases were led by rate decreases of 49·1% (32·7-61·0) for diarrhoeal diseases, 42·9% (38·0-48·0) for HIV/AIDS, and 42·2% (23·6-56·6) for tuberculosis. Neonatal disorders and lower respiratory infections remained the leading level 3 CMNN causes globally in 2023, although both showed notable rate decreases from 2010, declining by 16·5% (10·6-22·0) and 24·8% (7·4-36·7), respectively. Injury-related age-standardised DALY rates decreased by 15·6% (10·7-19·8) over the same period. Differences in burden due to NCDs, CMNN diseases, and injuries persisted across age, sex, time, and location. Based on our risk analysis, nearly 50% (1·27 billion [1·18-1·38]) of the roughly 2·80 billion total global DALYs in 2023 were attributable to the 88 risk factors analysed in GBD. Globally, the five level 3 risk factors contributing the highest proportion of risk-attributable DALYs were high systolic blood pressure (SBP), particulate matter pollution, high fasting plasma glucose (FPG), smoking, and low birthweight and short gestation-with high SBP accounting for 8·4% (6·9-10·0) of total DALYs. Of the three overarching level 1 GBD risk factor categories-behavioural, metabolic, and environmental and occupational-risk-attributable DALYs rose between 2010 and 2023 only for metabolic risks, increasing by 30·7% (24·8-37·3); however, age-standardised DALY rates attributable to metabolic risks decreased by 6·7% (2·0-11·0) over the same period. For all but three of the 25 leading level 3 risk factors, age-standardised rates dropped between 2010 and 2023-eg, declining by 54·4% (38·7-65·3) for unsafe sanitation, 50·5% (33·3-63·1) for unsafe water source, and 45·2% (25·6-72·0) for no access to handwashing facility, and by 44·9% (37·3-53·5) for child growth failure. The three leading level 3 risk factors for which age-standardised attributable DALY rates rose were high BMI (10·5% [0·1 to 20·9]), drug use (8·4% [2·6 to 15·3]), and high FPG (6·2% [-2·7 to 15·6]; non-significant). INTERPRETATION: Our findings underscore the complex and dynamic nature of global health challenges. Since 2010, there have been large decreases in burden due to CMNN diseases and many environmental and behavioural risk factors, juxtaposed with sizeable increases in DALYs attributable to metabolic risk factors and NCDs in growing and ageing populations. This long-observed consequence of the global epidemiological transition was only temporarily interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The substantially decreasing CMNN disease burden, despite the 2008 global financial crisis and pandemic-related disruptions, is one of the greatest collective public health successes known. However, these achievements are at risk of being reversed due to major cuts to development assistance for health globally, the effects of which will hit low-income countries with high burden the hardest. Without sustained investment in evidence-based interventions and policies, progress could stall or reverse, leading to widespread human costs and geopolitical instability. Moreover, the rising NCD burden necessitates intensified efforts to mitigate exposure to leading risk factors-eg, air pollution, smoking, and metabolic risks, such as high SBP, BMI, and FPG-including policies that promote food security, healthier diets, physical activity, and equitable and expanded access to potential treatments, such as GLP-1 receptor agonists. Decisive, coordinated action is needed to address long-standing yet growing health challenges, including depressive and anxiety disorders. Yet this can be only part of the solution. Our response to the NCD syndemic-the complex interaction of multiple health risks, social determinants, and systemic challenges-will define the future landscape of global health. To ensure human wellbeing, economic stability, and social equity, global action to sustain and advance health gains must prioritise reducing disparities by addressing socioeconomic and demographic determinants, ensuring equitable health-care access, tackling malnutrition, strengthening health systems, and improving vaccination coverage. We live in times of great opportunity. FUNDING: Gates Foundation and Bloomberg Philanthropies.

The field of nonverbal communication (NVC) has a long history involving many cue modalities, including face, voice, body, touch, and interpersonal space; different levels of analysis, including normative, group, and individual differences; and many substantive themes that cross from psychology into other disciplines. In this review, we focus on NVC as it pertains to individuals and social interaction. We concentrate specifically on ( a) the meanings and correlates of cues that are enacted (sent) by encoders and ( b) the perception of nonverbal cues and the accuracy of such perception. Frameworks are presented for conceptualizing and understanding the process of sending and receiving nonverbal cues. Measurement issues are discussed, and theoretical issues and new developments are covered briefly. Although our review is primarily oriented within social and personality psychology, the interdisciplinary nature of NVC is evident in the growing body of research on NVC across many areas of scientific inquiry.

The short-run interdependence of prices and price volatility across three major international stock markets is studied. Daily opening and closing prices of major stock indexes for the Tokyo, London, and New York stock markets are examined. The analysis utilizes the autoregressive conditionally heteroskedastic (ARCH) family of statistical models to explore these pricing relationships. Evidence of price volatility spillovers from New York to Tokyo, London to Tokyo, and New York to London is observed, but no price volatility spillover effects in other directions are found for the pre-October 1987 period.

Abstract Young children's early understanding of emotion was investigated by examining their use of emotion terms such as happy, sad, mud, and cry. Five children's emotion language was examined longitudinally from the age of 2 to 5 years, and as a comparison their reference to pains via such terms as burn, sting, and hurt was also examined. In Phase 1 we confirmed and extended prior findings demonstrating that by 2 years of age terms for the basic emotions of happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are commonly used by children as are terms for such related states as crying and hurting. At this early age children produce such terms to refer to self and to others, and to past and future as well as to present states. Over the years from 2 to 5 children's emotion vocabulary expands, their discussion of hypothetical emotions gets underway, and the complexity of their emotion utterances increases. In Phase 2 our analyses go beyond children's production of emotion terms to analyses of their conception of emotion. We focus especially on when children use emotion terms to refer to subjective experiential states of persons. From their earliest uses of these terms in our data children