University of New England

We have recently described a remarkable new way of exploring packing modes and intermolecular interactions in molecular crystals using a novel partitioning of crystal space. These molecular Hirshfeld surfaces reflect intermolecular interactions in a novel visual manner, offering a hitherto unseen picture of molecular shape in a crystalline environment. The surfaces encode information about all intermolecular interactions simultaneously, but sophisticated interactive graphics are required in order to extract the information most efficiently. To overcome this we have devised a two-dimensional mapping which summarizes quantitatively the nature and type of intermolecular interaction experienced by a molecule in the bulk, and presents it in a convenient graphical format. The mapping takes advantage of the triangulation of the Hirshfeld surfaces, and plots the fraction of points on the surface as a function of the closest distances from the point to nuclei inside and outside the surface. In this manner all interaction types (for example, hydrogen bonding, close and distant van der Waals contacts, C–H⋯π interactions, π–π stacking) are readily identifiable, and it becomes a straightforward matter to classify molecular crystals by the nature of interactions, and to rapidly identify similarities and differences which can become obscured when examining crystal packing diagrams. These plots are a novel visual representation of all the intermolecular interactions simultaneously, and are unique for a given crystal structure and polymorph. Applications to a wide variety of molecular crystals and intermolecular interactions are presented, including polymorphic systems, as well as crystals where Z′ > 1.

Abstract The International Mineralogical Association's approved amphibole nomenclature has been revised in order to simplify it, make it more consistent with divisions generally at 50%, define prefixes and modifiers more precisely and include new amphibole species discovered and named since 1978, when the previous scheme was approved. The same reference axes form the basis of the new scheme and most names are little changed but compound species names like tremolitic hornblende (now magnesiohornblende) are abolished and also crossite (now glaucophane or ferroglaucophane or magnesioriebeckite or riebeckite), tirodite (now manganocummingtonite) and dannemorite (now manganogrunerite). The 50% rule has been broken only to retain tremolite and actinolite as in the 1978 scheme so the sodic calcic amphibole range has therefore been expanded. Alkali amphiboles are now sodic amphiboles. The use of hyphens is defined. New amphibole names approved since 1978 include nyböite, leakeite, kornite, ungarettiite, sadanagaite and cannilloite. All abandoned names are listed. The formulae and source of the amphibole end member names are listed and procedures outlined to calculate Fe 3+ and Fe 2+ when not determined by analysis.

A new way of exploring packing modes and intermolecular interactions in molecular crystals is described, using Hirshfeld surfaces to partition crystal space. These molecular Hirshfeld surfaces, so named because they derive from Hirshfeld's stockholder partitioning, divide the crystal into regions where the electron distribution of a sum of spherical atoms for the molecule (the promolecule) dominates the corresponding sum over the crystal (the procrystal). These surfaces reflect intermolecular interactions in a novel visual manner, offering a previously unseen picture of molecular shape in a crystalline environment. Surface features characteristic of different types of intermolecular interactions can be identified, and such features can be revealed by colour coding distances from the surface to the nearest atom exterior or interior to the surface, or by functions of the principal surface curvatures. These simple devices provide a striking and immediate picture of the types of interactions present, and even reflect their relative strengths from molecule to molecule. A complementary two-dimensional mapping is also presented, which summarizes quantitatively the types of intermolecular contacts experienced by molecules in the bulk and presents this information in a convenient colour plot. This paper describes the use of these tools in the compilation of a pictorial glossary of intermolecular interactions, using identifiable patterns of interaction between small molecules to rationalize the often complex mix of interactions displayed by large molecules.

Transforming the results of species distribution modelling from probabilities of or suitabilities for species occurrence to presences/absences needs a specific threshold. Even though there are many approaches to determining thresholds, there is no comparative study. In this paper, twelve approaches were compared using two species in Europe and artificial neural networks, and the modelling results were assessed using four indices: sensitivity, specificity, overall prediction success and Cohen's kappa statistic. The results show that prevalence approach, average predicted probability/suitability approach, and three sensitivity‐specificity‐combined approaches, including sensitivity‐specificity sum maximization approach, sensitivity‐specificity equality approach and the approach based on the shortest distance to the top‐left corner (0,1) in ROC plot, are the good ones. The commonly used kappa maximization approach is not as good as the afore‐mentioned ones, and the fixed threshold approach is the worst one. We also recommend using datasets with prevalence of 50% to build models if possible since most optimization criteria might be satisfied or nearly satisfied at the same time, and therefore it's easier to find optimal thresholds in this situation.

ABSTRACT A wide range of modelling algorithms is used by ecologists, conservation practitioners, and others to predict species ranges from point locality data. Unfortunately, the amount of data available is limited for many taxa and regions, making it essential to quantify the sensitivity of these algorithms to sample size. This is the first study to address this need by rigorously evaluating a broad suite of algorithms with independent presence–absence data from multiple species and regions. We evaluated predictions from 12 algorithms for 46 species (from six different regions of the world) at three sample sizes (100, 30, and 10 records). We used data from natural history collections to run the models, and evaluated the quality of model predictions with area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). With decreasing sample size, model accuracy decreased and variability increased across species and between models. Novel modelling methods that incorporate both interactions between predictor variables and complex response shapes (i.e. GBM, MARS‐INT, BRUTO) performed better than most methods at large sample sizes but not at the smallest sample sizes. Other algorithms were much less sensitive to sample size, including an algorithm based on maximum entropy (MAXENT) that had among the best predictive power across all sample sizes. Relative to other algorithms, a distance metric algorithm (DOMAIN) and a genetic algorithm (OM‐GARP) had intermediate performance at the largest sample size and among the best performance at the lowest sample size. No algorithm predicted consistently well with small sample size ( n < 30) and this should encourage highly conservative use of predictions based on small sample size and restrict their use to exploratory modelling.

Plant traits-the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and phenological characteristics of plants-determine how plants respond to environmental factors, affect other trophic levels, and influence ecosystem properties and their benefits and detriments to people. Plant trait data thus represent the basis for a vast area of research spanning from evolutionary biology, community and functional ecology, to biodiversity conservation, ecosystem and landscape management, restoration, biogeography and earth system modelling. Since its foundation in 2007, the TRY database of plant traits has grown continuously. It now provides unprecedented data coverage under an open access data policy and is the main plant trait database used by the research community worldwide. Increasingly, the TRY database also supports new frontiers of trait-based plant research, including the identification of data gaps and the subsequent mobilization or measurement of new data. To support this development, in this article we evaluate the extent of the trait data compiled in TRY and analyse emerging patterns of data coverage and representativeness. Best species coverage is achieved for categorical traits-almost complete coverage for 'plant growth form'. However, most traits relevant for ecology and vegetation modelling are characterized by continuous intraspecific variation and trait-environmental relationships. These traits have to be measured on individual plants in their respective environment. Despite unprecedented data coverage, we observe a humbling lack of completeness and representativeness of these continuous traits in many aspects. We, therefore, conclude that reducing data gaps and biases in the TRY database remains a key challenge and requires a coordinated approach to data mobilization and trait measurements. This can only be achieved in collaboration with other initiatives.

Abstract: We synthesized key findings from the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project, the world's largest and longest‐running experimental study of habitat fragmentation. Although initially designed to assess the influence of fragment area on Amazonian biotas, the project has yielded insights that go far beyond the original scope of the study. Results suggest that edge effects play a key role in fragment dynamics, that the matrix has a major influence on fragment connectivity and functioning, and that many Amazonian species avoid even small (<100‐m–wide) clearings. The effects of fragmentation are highly eclectic, altering species richness and abundances, species invasions, forest dynamics, the trophic structure of communities, and a variety of ecological and ecosystem processes. Moreover, forest fragmentation appears to interact synergistically with ecological changes such as hunting, fires, and logging, collectively posing an even greater threat to the rainforest biota.

BACKGROUND: We conducted meta-analyses examining the effects of endurance, dynamic resistance, combined endurance and resistance training, and isometric resistance training on resting blood pressure (BP) in adults. The aims were to quantify and compare BP changes for each training modality and identify patient subgroups exhibiting the largest BP changes. METHODS AND RESULTS: Randomized controlled trials lasting ≥4 weeks investigating the effects of exercise on BP in healthy adults (age ≥18 years) and published in a peer-reviewed journal up to February 2012 were included. Random effects models were used for analyses, with data reported as weighted means and 95% confidence interval. We included 93 trials, involving 105 endurance, 29 dynamic resistance, 14 combined, and 5 isometric resistance groups, totaling 5223 participants (3401 exercise and 1822 control). Systolic BP (SBP) was reduced after endurance (-3.5 mm Hg [confidence limits -4.6 to -2.3]), dynamic resistance (-1.8 mm Hg [-3.7 to -0.011]), and isometric resistance (-10.9 mm Hg [-14.5 to -7.4]) but not after combined training. Reductions in diastolic BP (DBP) were observed after endurance (-2.5 mm Hg [-3.2 to -1.7]), dynamic resistance (-3.2 mm Hg [-4.5 to -2.0]), isometric resistance (-6.2 mm Hg [-10.3 to -2.0]), and combined (-2.2 mm Hg [-3.9 to -0.48]) training. BP reductions after endurance training were greater (P<0.0001) in 26 study groups of hypertensive subjects (-8.3 [-10.7 to -6.0]/-5.2 [-6.8 to -3.4] mm Hg) than in 50 groups of prehypertensive subjects (-2.1 [-3.3 to -0.83]/-1.7 [-2.7 to -0.68]) and 29 groups of subjects with normal BP levels (-0.75 [-2.2 to +0.69]/-1.1 [-2.2 to -0.068]). BP reductions after dynamic resistance training were largest for prehypertensive participants (-4.0 [-7.4 to -0.5]/-3.8 [-5.7 to -1.9] mm Hg) compared with patients with hypertension or normal BP. CONCLUSION: Endurance, dynamic resistance, and isometric resistance training lower SBP and DBP, whereas combined training lowers only DBP. Data from a small number of isometric resistance training studies suggest this form of training has the potential for the largest reductions in SBP.

Experiments suggest that biodiversity enhances the ability of ecosystems to maintain multiple functions, such as carbon storage, productivity, and the buildup of nutrient pools (multifunctionality). However, the relationship between biodiversity and multifunctionality has never been assessed globally in natural ecosystems. We report here on a global empirical study relating plant species richness and abiotic factors to multifunctionality in drylands, which collectively cover 41% of Earth's land surface and support over 38% of the human population. Multifunctionality was positively and significantly related to species richness. The best-fitting models accounted for over 55% of the variation in multifunctionality and always included species richness as a predictor variable. Our results suggest that the preservation of plant biodiversity is crucial to buffer negative effects of climate change and desertification in drylands.

Heavy metal accumulation in soil has been rapidly increased due to various natural processes and anthropogenic (industrial) activities. As heavy metals are non-biodegradable, they persist in the environment, have potential to enter the food chain through crop plants, and eventually may accumulate in the human body through biomagnification. Owing to their toxic nature, heavy metal contamination has posed a serious threat to human health and the ecosystem. Therefore, remediation of land contamination is of paramount importance. Phytoremediation is an eco-friendly approach that could be a successful mitigation measure to revegetate heavy metal-polluted soil in a cost-effective way. To improve the efficiency of phytoremediation, a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying heavy metal accumulation and tolerance in plant is indispensable. In this review, we describe the mechanisms of how heavy metals are taken up, translocated, and detoxified in plants. We focus on the strategies applied to improve the efficiency of phytostabilization and phytoextraction, including the application of genetic engineering, microbe-assisted and chelate-assisted approaches.

Abstract This paper analyses the environmental disclosure practices of Australian corporate entities. The paper documents three separate but related investigations. First, in a review of a sample of annual reports for the 1991 financial year, it is apparent that environmental disclosure practices adopted by the sample are self-laudatory, with companies promoting positive aspects of their environmental performance, but failing to disclose negative aspects. Second, in a review of corporate disclosure practices in the period 1980 to 1991, environmental disclosure made by the sample significantly increases across time. This change is linked to an apparent increase in societal concern relating to environmental issues. Finally, using a questionnaire administered to environmental lobby groups, it appears that the extent of corporate environmental disclosure is positively associated with the environmental lobby groups' concern about the environmental performance of companies within particular industries.

Research on the adoption of rural innovations is reviewed and interpreted through a cross-disciplinary lens to provide practical guidance for research, extension and policy relating to conservation practices. Adoption of innovations by landholders is presented as a dynamic learning process. Adoption depends on a range of personal, social, cultural and economic factors, as well as on characteristics of the innovation itself. Adoption occurs when the landholder perceives that the innovation in question will enhance the achievement of their personal goals. A range of goals is identifiable among landholders, including economic, social and environmental goals. Innovations are more likely to be adopted when they have a high ‘relative advantage’ (perceived superiority to the idea or practice that it supersedes), and when they are readily trialable (easy to test and learn about before adoption). Non-adoption or low adoption of a number of conservation practices is readily explicable in terms of their failure to provide a relative advantage (particularly in economic terms) or a range of difficulties that landholders may have in trialing them.

This paper considers a statistical model for a production frontier that is consistent with the traditional (nonstochastic) definition of a production function given in microeconomic theory. Limiting cases of the model are the familiar average production function and an envelope production function. Maximum‐likelihood estimators for the parameters of the model are defined. The three related models are applied in the estimation of a production frontier for the Pastoral Zone of Eastern Australia with use of data from the Australian Grazing Industry Survey.

The Speech, Spatial and Qualities of Hearing Scale (SSQ) is designed to measure a range of hearing disabilities across several domains. Particular attention is given to hearing speech in a variety of competing contexts, and to the directional, distance and movement components of spatial hearing. In addition, the abilities both to segregate sounds and to attend to simultaneous speech streams are assessed, reflecting the reality of hearing in the everyday world. Qualities of hearing experience include ease of listening, and the naturalness, clarity and identifiability of different speakers, different musical pieces and instruments, and different everyday sounds. Application of the SSQ to 153 new clinic clients prior to hearing aid fitting showed that the greatest difficulty was experienced with simultaneous speech streams, ease of listening, listening in groups and in noise, and judging distance and movement. SSQ ratings were compared with an independent measure of handicap. After differences in hearing level were controlled for, it was found that identification, attention and effort problems, as well as spatial hearing problems, feature prominently in the disability handicap relationship,. along with certain features of speech hearing. The results implicate aspects of temporal and spatial dynamics of hearing disability in the experience of handicap. The SSQ shows promise as an instrument for evaluating interventions of various kinds, particularly (but not exclusively) those that implicate binaural function.

Life on Earth is sustained by a small volume of soil surrounding roots, called the rhizosphere. The soil is where most of the biodiversity on Earth exists, and the rhizosphere probably represents the most dynamic habitat on Earth; and certainly is the most important zone in terms of defining the quality and quantity of the Human terrestrial food resource. Despite its central importance to all life, we know very little about rhizosphere functioning, and have an extraordinary ignorance about how best we can manipulate it to our advantage. A major issue in research on rhizosphere processes is the intimate connection between the biology, physics and chemistry of the system which exhibits astonishing spatial and temporal heterogeneities. This review considers the unique biophysical and biogeochemical properties of the rhizosphere and draws some connections between them. Particular emphasis is put on how underlying processes affect rhizosphere ecology, to generate highly heterogeneous microenvironments. Rhizosphere ecology is driven by a combination of the physical architecture of the soil matrix, coupled with the spatial and temporal distribution of rhizodeposits, protons, gases, and the role of roots as sinks for water and nutrients. Consequences for plant growth and whole-system ecology are considered. The first sections address the physical architecture and soil strength of the rhizosphere, drawing their relationship with key functions such as the movement and storage of elements and water as well as the ability of roots to explore the soil and the definition of diverse habitats for soil microorganisms. The distribution of water and its accessibility in the rhizosphere is considered in detail, with a special emphasis on spatial and temporal dynamics and heterogeneities. The physical architecture and water content play a key role in determining the biogeochemical ambience of the rhizosphere, via their effect on partial pressures of O2 and CO2, and thereby on redox potential and pH of the rhizosphere, respectively. We address the various mechanisms by which roots and associated microorganisms alter these major drivers of soil biogeochemistry. Finally, we consider the distribution of nutrients, their accessibility in the rhizosphere, and their functional relevance for plant and microbial ecology. Gradients of nutrients in the rhizosphere, and their spatial patterns or temporal dynamics are discussed in the light of current knowledge of rhizosphere biophysics and biogeochemistry. Priorities for future research are identified as well as new methodological developments which might help to advance a comprehensive understanding of the co-occurring processes in the rhizosphere.

▪ Abstract The hyporheic zone is an active ecotone between the surface stream and groundwater. Exchanges of water, nutrients, and organic matter occur in response to variations in discharge and bed topography and porosity. Upwelling subsurface water supplies stream organisms with nutrients while downwelling stream water provides dissolved oxygen and organic matter to microbes and invertebrates in the hyporheic zone. Dynamic gradients exist at all scales and vary temporally. At the microscale, gradients in redox potential control chemical and microbially mediated nutrient transformations occurring on particle surfaces. At the stream-reach scale, hydrological exchange and water residence time are reflected in gradients in hyporheic faunal composition, uptake of dissolved organic carbon, and nitrification. The hyporheic corridor concept describes gradients at the catchment scale, extending to alluvial aquifers kilometers from the main channel. Across all scales, the functional significance of the hyporheic zone relates to its activity and connection with the surface stream.

The concept of research paradigm is one that many higher degree research students, and even early career researchers, find elusive to articulate, and challenging to apply in their research proposals. Adopting an ethnographic and hermeneutic methodology, the present paper draws upon our experiences as lecturers in Research Methods over many years, and upon pertinent literature to explain the meaning of research paradigm. The paper elucidates the key aspects of research paradigms that researchers should understand well to be able to address this concept adequately in their research proposals. It offers suggestions on how researchers can locate their research into a paradigm and the justification needed for paradigm choice. With the explicit purpose of helping higher degree research (HDR) students design effective research proposals, the paper also discusses the different research methodologies best suited to conduct research in each of the paradigms discussed.

Within Australia there is ageneral absence of professional or legislative rules requiring companies to provide information relating to their environmental performance or any environmental initiatives undertaken. Previous research studies have shown that many firms present environmental information, but only tend to present information which is favourable to their corporate image. Investigates the environmental reporting practices of a sample of 20 Australian companies which were subject to successful prosecution by the New South Wales, and Victorian Environmental Protection Authorities, during the period 1990‐1993. Indicates a significant increase in the reporting of favourable environmental information surrounding environmental prosecution. Further, the amount of positive environmental information significantly outweighed the negative environmental information presented, which was interesting given that it is clear that the firms studied did have bad news to report. The existence of a proven environmental offence was reported by only two of the companies within the sample. Raises issues as to whether information about a proven environmental offence is “material” to account users and, if so, whether financial statements could be construed as being misleading in the absence of such information.

Although it is well established that during periods of torpor heterothermic mammals and birds can reduce metabolic rates (MR) substantially, the mechanisms causing the reduction of MR remain a controversial subject. The comparative analysis provided here suggests that MR reduction depends on patterns of torpor used, the state of torpor, and body mass. Daily heterotherms, which are species that enter daily torpor exclusively, appear to rely mostly on the fall of body temperature (Tb) for MR reduction, perhaps with the exception of very small species and at high torpor Tb, where some metabolic inhibition may be used. In contrast, hibernators (species capable of prolonged torpor bouts) rely extensively on metabolic inhibition, in addition to Tb effects, to reduce MR to a fraction of that observed in daily heterotherms. In small hibernators, metabolic inhibition and the large fall of Tb are employed to maximize energy conservation, whereas in large hibernators, metabolic inhibition appears to be employed to facilitate MR and Tb reduction at torpor onset. Over the ambient temperature (Ta) range where torpid heterotherms are thermo-conforming, the Tb-Ta differential is more or less constant despite a decline of MR with Ta; however, in thermo-regulating torpid individuals, the Tb-Ta differential is maintained by a proportional increase of MR as during normothermia, albeit at a lower Tb. Thermal conductance in most torpid thermo-regulating individuals is similar to that in normothermic individuals despite the substantially lower MR in the former. However, conductance is low when deeply torpid animals are thermo-conforming probably because of peripheral vasoconstriction.

Recent evidence in natural and semi-natural settings has revealed a variety of left-right perceptual asymmetries among vertebrates. These include preferential use of the left or right visual hemifield during activities such as searching for food, agonistic responses, or escape from predators in animals as different as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. There are obvious disadvantages in showing such directional asymmetries because relevant stimuli may be located to the animal's left or right at random; there is no a priori association between the meaning of a stimulus (e.g., its being a predator or a food item) and its being located to the animal's left or right. Moreover, other organisms (e.g., predators) could exploit the predictability of behavior that arises from population-level lateral biases. It might be argued that lateralization of function enhances cognitive capacity and efficiency of the brain, thus counteracting the ecological disadvantages of lateral biases in behavior. However, such an increase in brain efficiency could be obtained by each individual being lateralized without any need to align the direction of the asymmetry in the majority of the individuals of the population. Here we argue that the alignment of the direction of behavioral asymmetries at the population level arises as an "evolutionarily stable strategy" under "social" pressures occurring when individually asymmetrical organisms must coordinate their behavior with the behavior of other asymmetrical organisms of the same or different species.