Transportation Security Administration

A growing body of research has suggested that the experience of injustice, psychological contract breach, or unfairness can adversely impact an employee's health. We conducted a meta-analysis to examine the effects of unfairness perceptions on health, examining types of fairness and methodological characteristics as moderators. Results suggested that perceptions of unfairness were associated with indicators of physical and mental health. Furthermore, psychological contract breach contributed to the prediction of strain-related indicators of health above and beyond that accounted for by injustice alone.

Many socially important search tasks are characterized by low target prevalence, meaning that targets are rarely encountered. For example, transportation security officers (TSOs) at airport checkpoints encounter very few actual threats in carry-on bags. In laboratory-based visual search experiments, low prevalence reduces the probability of detecting targets (Wolfe, Horowitz, & Kenner, 2005). In the lab, this "prevalence effect" is caused by changes in decision and response criteria (Wolfe & Van Wert, 2010) and can be mitigated by presenting a burst of high-prevalence search with feedback (Wolfe et al., 2007). The goal of this study was to see if these effects could be replicated in the field with TSOs. A total of 125 newly trained TSOs participated in one of two experiments as part of their final evaluation following training. They searched for threats in simulated bags across five blocks. The first three blocks were low prevalence (target prevalence ≤ .05) with no feedback; the fourth block was high prevalence (.50) with full feedback; and the final block was, again, low prevalence. We found that newly trained TSOs were better at detecting targets at high compared to low prevalence, replicating the prevalence effect. Furthermore, performance was better (and response criterion was more "liberal") in the low-prevalence block that took place after the high-prevalence block than in the initial three low-prevalence blocks, suggesting that a burst of high-prevalence trials may help alleviate the prevalence effect in the field.

Building on research previously reported at AAMAS conferences, this paper describes an innovative application of a novel gametheoretic approach for a national scale security deployment. Working with the United States Transportation Security Administration (TSA), we have developed a new application called GUARDS to assist in resource allocation tasks for airport protection at over 400 United States airports. In contrast with previous efforts such as AR-MOR and IRIS, which focused on one-off tailored applications and one security activity (e.g. canine patrol or checkpoints) per application, GUARDS faces three key issues: (i) reasoning about hundreds of heterogeneous security activities; (ii) reasoning over diverse potential threats; (iii) developing a system designed for hundreds of end-users. Since a national deployment precludes tailoring to specific airports, our key ideas are: (i) creating a new game-theoretic

We report the development of a handheld sensor based on piezoresistive microcantilevers that does not depend on optical detection, yet has high detection sensitivity. The sensor is able to detect vapors from the plastic explosives pentaerythritol tetranitrate and hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine at levels below 10 parts per trillion within few seconds of exposure under ambient conditions. A differential measurement technique has yielded a rugged sensor that is unaffected by vibration and is able to function as a “sniffer.” The microelectromechanical system sensor design allows for the incorporation of hundreds of microcantilevers with suitable coatings in order to achieve sufficient selectivity in the future, and thus could provide an inexpensive, unique platform for the detection of chemical, biological, and explosive materials.

Many working-dog programs assess behavior during a dog's first year of life with the aim of predicting success in the field. However, decisions about which tests to administer are frequently made on the basis of tradition or intuition. This study reports results from a survey given to U.S.A.'s Transportation Security Administration (TSA) detection-dog handlers (N = 34). We categorized and summarized handlers' responses regarding traits they felt were important for work. We used this criterion analysis to examine the content validity of the TSA's puppy tests. Results indicate that 13 of 15 traits that are currently being measured are relevant. However, several traits not currently measured were identified as being highly important, notably "play" and off-duty "calmness." These results provide support that the TSA tests are measuring traits relevant to operational search team performance but also highlight other traits that may be profitable to assess in this and other detection-dog programs.

The use of secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) for the detection and spatially resolved analysis of individual high explosive particles is described. A C(8) (-) carbon cluster primary ion beam was used in a commercial SIMS instrument to analyze samples of high explosives dispersed as particles on silicon substrates. In comparison with monatomic primary ion bombardment, the carbon cluster primary ion beam was found to greatly enhance characteristic secondary ion signals from the explosive compounds while causing minimal beam-induced degradation. The resistance of these compounds to degradation under ion bombardment allows explosive particles to be analyzed under high primary ion dose bombardment (dynamic SIMS) conditions, facilitating the rapid acquisition of spatially resolved molecular information. The use of cluster SIMS combined with computer control of the sample stage position allows for the automated identification and counting of explosive particle distributions on silicon surfaces. This will be useful for characterizing the efficiency of transfer of particulates in trace explosive detection portal collectors and/or swipes utilized for ion mobility spectrometry applications.

For most security planners, a key challenge is to continuously evaluate how changes or additions to their facilities or procedures impact security effectiveness, operational costs, and passenger throughput. Each change must be analyzed to ensure negative effects do not outweigh the benefits. This paper presents security checkpoint optimizer (SCO), a 2-D spatially aware discrete event simulation tool developed by Northrop Grumman for the transportation security administration (TSA), a part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. SCO is designed to allow security analysts to graphically build a simulation model and layout a series of screening activities to take place. Once the model is defined, SCO simulates passenger movement using both path-based and pathless movement algorithms to mimic a semi-autonomous passenger traversal of a 2-D space. The software is designed to allow analysts to perform multiple "what-if" analyses to balance benefits and tradeoffs

We describe an innovative application of a novel game-theoretic approach for a national scale security deployment. Working with the United States Transportation Security Administration (TSA), we have developed a new application called GUARDS to allocate the TSA’s limited resources across hundreds of security activities to provide protection at over 400 United States airports. Similar security applications (e.g., ARMOR and IRIS) have focused on one-off tailored applications and one security activity (e.g. checkpoints) per application, GUARDS on the other hand faces three new key issues: (i) reasoning about hundreds of heterogeneous security activities; (ii) reasoning over diverse potential threats; (iii) developing a system designed for hundreds of end-users. Since a national deployment precludes tailoring to specific airports, our key ideas are: (i) creating a new game-theoretic framework that allows for heterogeneous defender activities and compact modeling of a large number of threats; (ii) developing an efficient solution technique based on general purpose Stackelberg game solvers; (iii) taking a partially centralized approach for knowledge acquisition. The scheduling assistant has been delivered to the TSA and is currently undergoing evaluation for scheduling practices at an undisclosed airport. If successful, the TSA intends to incorporate the system into their unpredictable scheduling practices nationwide.

Explosives detection is a very important task for National Security. The formidable task includes development of new probes and methods for detection of concealed explosives which is of utmost priority to Homeland Security and other security enforcing federal agencies. Here we report on the detection of triacetone triperoxide (TATP) on metallic surfaces using a Fiber Optic Coupled FTIR method. FT-IR spectroscopy is well suited to be used outside the confinement of the sample compartment, provided the excitation source and the reflected light can be transported to the interferometer. Fiber optic cables that transmit in the Mid-IR range have made this possible by allowing the development of a range of spectroscopic probes for in situ analysis. In our study we used a specially designed sampling probe that operates at the grazing-angle to detect and to quantify μg/cm2 levels of explosives on stainless steel. Calibration curves were prepared using stainless steel plates, 3 inches wide x 6 inches long. The samples were deposited on the surface using a smearing method. To carry out the experiments, TATP was synthesized in the laboratory. For the calibration curves TATP was dissolved in dichloromethane. The standard solutions (20) μL were transferred on the plates resulting in surface mass concentrations of TATP that ranged from 8 to 150 μg/cm2. The data was analyzed using Chemometrics routines and Discriminant Analysis algorithms. In particular, multivariate Partial Least Squares (PLS) was used to determine the most significant peak for the analysis. In other experiments done with stainless steel plates coated with 150 μg/cm2 TATP, spectra were recorded every 27 seconds. For this concentration TATP sublimates to surface concentrations below detection in 800 s.

Improvements in the technologies available to aviation security at the checkpoint are essential for efficient and effective operations. X-ray systems in airports are designed to display images of baggage and contents, including guns, knives, other weapons, and explosives. X-ray systems have various functions to enhance the image displayed to maximize the screeners' ability to determine if carry-on bags contain potential threats. The growing sophistication of terrorists has led to the ability to conceal improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in everyday objects. The use of X-ray image enhancement aids may help screeners detect small and artfully concealed threats giving them the best image first. The purpose of this project was to determine if any of the X-ray functions (i.e., color, crystal clear, inverse, organic stripping, inorganic stripping, high density, low density, black and white) increase X-ray screeners' threat (i.e., IEDs, guns, knives, and other prohibited items) detection performance. An investigation to determine screener maximum performance when detecting artfully concealed IEDs was also of interest. A special set of threat bag images contained artfully concealed IEDs at full and sub-certification weights. This test evaluated experienced X-ray screeners' threat detection of threats in X-ray images. Eighty-four screeners were tested on Rapiscan Security Products X-ray emulators at three airport sites (28 screeners per site). All screeners were required to participate in the assessment of two sets of X-ray images (400 images with color only and 400 images with other X-ray functions). Each set of bag images contained 72 threat bags and 328 innocent bags. The threat images contained: guns, knives, or prohibited items, or IEDs at full and sub-certification weights (i.e., 1/4 , 1/2 and 3/4 ). The screeners were required to decide if an X-ray image was innocent or if the image contained a threat.

Non nitrogen containing, organic peroxides explosives Triacetone triperoxide and diacetone diperoxide have been prepared in the laboratory in order to study various aspects of their synthesis and their experimental and theoretical spectroscopic characteristics. By using different proportions of acetone/hydrogen peroxide (Ac/H₂O₂), sulfuric, hydrochloric and methanosulfuric acids as catalyzers, it was possible to obtain both compounds in a rapid and simple form. Raman, IR spectroscopy, and GC-MS were used in order to determine the precursors, intermediates and final analytes. Experiments and theoretical studies using density functional theory (DFT) have been used in the elucidation step of the mechanism of the synthesis of the so called "transparent" explosives. The B3LYP functional with the 6-31G** basis set was used to carry out the electronic structure calculation of the intermediates and internal rotations and vibrations of TATP. Raman spectra of solid TATP and FTIR spectra of gas TATP, were recorded in order to assign the experimental spectra. Although full agreement with experiment was not obtained, spectral features of the main TATP bands were assigned.

High-speed imaging and cinematography are important in research on explosions, firearms, and homeland security. Much can be learned from imaging the motion of shock waves generated by such explosive events. However, the required optical equipment is generally not available for such research due to the small aperture and delicacy of the optics and the expense and expertise required to implement high-speed optical methods. For example, previous aircraft hardening experiments involving explosions aboard full-scale aircraft lacked optical shock imaging, even though such imaging is the principal tool of explosion and shock wave research. Here, experiments are reported using the Penn State Full-Scale Schlieren System, a lens-and-grid-type optical system with a very large field-of-view. High-speed images are captured by photography using an electronic flash and by a new high-speed digital video camera. These experiments cover a field-of-view of 2x3 m at frame rates up to 30 kHz. Our previous high-speed schlieren cinematography experiments on aircraft hardening used a traditional drum camera and photographic film. A stark contrast in utility is found between that technology and the all-digital high-speed videography featured in this paper.

The United States Commercial Aviation Partnership (USCAP), a group of government and industry stakeholders, combined several operations research methods in an analytical process and model that encompasses the US commercial aviation industry, including travelers, airlines, airports, airline and airport suppliers, government agencies, and travel and tourism entities. With input from these stakeholders, the model, combining system dynamics and econometrics, evaluates the effects of proposed security measures over 25 years. It enables all stakeholders to share a common understanding of these effects and helps government decision makers to improve security without undue and unforeseen operational and economic impact. The model uses linear and nonlinear programming, single and multivariate regression, system dynamics, econometrics, and Monte Carlo simulation. Since 2004, the government has considered the model results in determining policies for screening and credentialing airport employees, screening passengers and cargo, determining security staffing levels, and charging security fees. All participating stakeholders reviewed each analysis for acceptability. Based on the model’s success, they envision extending its use to include nonsecurity policy issues. September 11, 2001, the day commercial airplanes became weapons of mass destruction, is personal to many of us and has changed our perspectives on our lives and our world. The official death toll in the attacks was 2,986, including the airline passengers and airline crew members, workers and visitors in the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the police and firefighters, and the 19 hijackers. The US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) halted all flight operations at the nation’s airports for the first time in US history and swiftly grounded the approximately 5,000 commercial aircraft that were in flight. Only military aircraft were flying over the US for the rest of that and the next few days. The events of that day left the airline industry and its supporting companies financially devastated.

Medical image interpretation is central to detecting, diagnosing, and staging cancer and many other disorders. At a time when medical imaging is being transformed by digital technologies and artificial intelligence, understanding the basic perceptual and cognitive processes underlying medical image interpretation is vital for increasing diagnosticians' accuracy and performance, improving patient outcomes, and reducing diagnostician burnout. Medical image perception remains substantially understudied. In September 2019, the National Cancer Institute convened a multidisciplinary panel of radiologists and pathologists together with researchers working in medical image perception and adjacent fields of cognition and perception for the "Cognition and Medical Image Perception Think Tank." The Think Tank's key objectives were to identify critical unsolved problems related to visual perception in pathology and radiology from the perspective of diagnosticians, discuss how these clinically relevant questions could be addressed through cognitive and perception research, identify barriers and solutions for transdisciplinary collaborations, define ways to elevate the profile of cognition and perception research within the medical image community, determine the greatest needs to advance medical image perception, and outline future goals and strategies to evaluate progress. The Think Tank emphasized diagnosticians' perspectives as the crucial starting point for medical image perception research, with diagnosticians describing their interpretation process and identifying perceptual and cognitive problems that arise. This article reports the deliberations of the Think Tank participants to address these objectives and highlight opportunities to expand research on medical image perception.

One of the keys to integrating 100% checked bag screening into airports is identifying realistic throughput rates of various explosive detection system (EDS) machines available to Transportation Security Administration (TSA) planners. This study discusses some of the issues associated with the implementation of EDS equipment and performs an analysis on the throughput of the equipment using modeling and discrete event simulation tools. The study determined that there is a significant difference between the scan rate and the effective throughput rate for the InVision CTX5500. This is extremely important for the TSA planners, who are determining the number of EDS machines to buy and deploy at all 429 US commercial airports. The deployments are based on passenger demand at peak hours of the day. Matching this relatively high volume operation against the slow processing rate of stand-alone EDS will generate large passenger queues unless multiple machines are installed to provide and acceptable level of customer (passenger) service. As a result, the effective throughput rate number should be used in determining the number of EDSs to install at a particular airport, not the machine scan rate.

This paper reviews the mission and function of the transportation security laboratory (TSL) within the Department of Homeland Security. It discusses the security challenges to be met and the methodology for developing equipment that can be fielded. The current program area structure is broken down into 4 areas that include: commerce inspection systems, passenger inspection systems, infrastructure protection systems, and conveyance protection systems. Under commerce inspection systems 2 areas are discussed. This includes checked baggage technology and cargo screening. Under checked baggage the development of revolutionary technologies and the combining of technologies are reviewed. In-line and lobby installations are compared. How current technologies fit into cargo screening is also discussed. Checkpoint improvement plans are presented along with the latest developments in walk-through explosives detection portals, document scanners, and walk-through metal detectors. Continuing efforts in the human factors areas are discussed. Within the conveyance protection program the authors review progress on hardened containers and blast resistant liners for protection of airliners as well as the use of threat containment units in conjunction with explosives detection systems (EDS). Under the infrastructure protection program the authors review some of the on-going pilot projects at various airports and the use of technologies such as fingerprint and iris identification, radio frequency identification (RFID) readers, video motion tracking and fiber optic netting. The authors also discuss the application of technologies in various modes of transportation including rail, highway, transit, and maritime

We report on the effect of trinitrotoluene (TNT) in the fluroescence emission of CdSe quantum dots covered with a ZnS core shell. Pulses of 100 femtoseconds are employed to excite the fluorescence of the dots off resonance. We found evidence for a strong quenching by TNT on the fluorescence emission of the quantum dots. The fluorescence emission of the QD experiences a blue or red shift that depends on the CdSe particle size and amount of TNT. The results are explained in terms of a charge transfer mechanism or a modification of the traps involved in electron relaxation in QD. The results show that QD are a promising tool for TNT sensing.

Critical, emerging problems necessitate finding new ways to study the environment. To this end, technology innovators must school researchers in an array of emerging technologies and teach them how to apply such technologies to their work. Two research projects took on this challenge, creating successful workshops and a virtual seminar designed to provide problem-based instruction. Here, project leaders evaluate their efforts and assess their activities, outcomes, and lessons learned.

Transportation Security Officers (TSOs) and Behavior Detection Officers (BDOs) are an integral part of the Transportation Security Administration’s (TSA) multilayered security program. Both officers are required to visually search their environments for prohibited items and cues that might be indicative of a threat. The purpose of this project was to identify factors that predicted the visual search success of these officers. A simulated visual search task was completed by 375 TSOs and BDOs, along with a battery of surveys designed to measure individual differences in personality traits, abilities, hobbies, and spatial ability. Results showed that TSOs and BDOs were highly accurate in their searches but that TSOs searched images faster than BDOs without sacrificing accuracy. Additional results showed that the strongest predictors of visual search accuracy were search speed and search consistency, but spatial ability emerged as a significant predictor for TSOs and frequency of video-game play emerged as a significant predictor for BDOs. Additional traits were also correlated with search performance but did not emerge as significant predictors in our regression models. Practical implication and directions for future research are discussed.

The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) has three engineering psychologists within the Office of Security Capabilities (OSC) who address the human element for the Agency. While many activities and programs cannot be elaborated upon due to security restrictions, a few human factors activities will be reviewed. The human factors team is tasked with writing and reviewing acquisition documents, as well as participating in acquisition milestones that span the Acquisition Lifecycle Framework. The team also works to improve operational efficiency, training effectiveness and data mining efforts by examining how human factors and interactions can be optimized for various processes and procedures. The Office has several ongoing research efforts with a number of different performers to investigate a range of human-centered issues. For example, through the Risk-Based Security Workforce Transformation Group, hypotheses were presented regarding the specialization of Officers at the checkpoint: image analysis, passenger interface, and effective interaction. Industrial/Organizational psychologists match job task analysis competencies with batteries of assessments to test for attitudes, attributes and aptitudes that would be predictive of these competencies on the job. Additional human-centered efforts will be discussed throughout this paper.