University of Wisconsin–Green Bay

The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.

Relieving phosphorus loading is a key management tool for controlling Lake Erie eutrophication. During the 1960s and 1970s, increased phosphorus inputs degraded water quality and reduced central basin hypolimnetic oxygen levels which, in turn, eliminated thermal habitat vital to cold-water organisms and contributed to the extirpation of important benthic macroinvertebrate prey species for fishes. In response to load reductions initiated in 1972, Lake Erie responded quickly with reduced water-column phosphorus concentrations, phytoplankton biomass, and bottom-water hypoxia (dissolved oxygen < 2 mg/l). Since the mid-1990s, cyanobacteria blooms increased and extensive hypoxia and benthic algae returned. We synthesize recent research leading to guidance for addressing this re-eutrophication, with particular emphasis on central basin hypoxia. We document recent trends in key eutrophication-related properties, assess their likely ecological impacts, and develop load response curves to guide revised hypoxia-based loading targets called for in the 2012 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. Reducing central basin hypoxic area to levels observed in the early 1990s (ca. 2000 km2) requires cutting total phosphorus loads by 46% from the 2003–2011 average or reducing dissolved reactive phosphorus loads by 78% from the 2005–2011 average. Reductions to these levels are also protective of fish habitat. We provide potential approaches for achieving those new loading targets, and suggest that recent load reduction recommendations focused on western basin cyanobacteria blooms may not be sufficient to reduce central basin hypoxia to 2000 km2.

Global change is impacting forests worldwide, threatening biodiversity and ecosystem services including climate regulation. Understanding how forests respond is critical to forest conservation and climate protection. This review describes an international network of 59 long-term forest dynamics research sites (CTFS-ForestGEO) useful for characterizing forest responses to global change. Within very large plots (median size 25 ha), all stems ≥ 1 cm diameter are identified to species, mapped, and regularly recensused according to standardized protocols. CTFS-ForestGEO spans 25 °S-61 °N latitude, is generally representative of the range of bioclimatic, edaphic, and topographic conditions experienced by forests worldwide, and is the only forest monitoring network that applies a standardized protocol to each of the world's major forest biomes. Supplementary standardized measurements at subsets of the sites provide additional information on plants, animals, and ecosystem and environmental variables. CTFS-ForestGEO sites are experiencing multifaceted anthropogenic global change pressures including warming (average 0.61 °C), changes in precipitation (up to ± 30% change), atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and sulfur compounds (up to 3.8 g N m(-2) yr(-1) and 3.1 g S m(-2) yr(-1)), and forest fragmentation in the surrounding landscape (up to 88% reduced tree cover within 5 km). The broad suite of measurements made at CTFS-ForestGEO sites makes it possible to investigate the complex ways in which global change is impacting forest dynamics. Ongoing research across the CTFS-ForestGEO network is yielding insights into how and why the forests are changing, and continued monitoring will provide vital contributions to understanding worldwide forest diversity and dynamics in an era of global change.

Abstract Aim To examine the contribution of large‐diameter trees to biomass, stand structure, and species richness across forest biomes. Location Global. Time period Early 21st century. Major taxa studied Woody plants. Methods We examined the contribution of large trees to forest density, richness and biomass using a global network of 48 large (from 2 to 60 ha) forest plots representing 5,601,473 stems across 9,298 species and 210 plant families. This contribution was assessed using three metrics: the largest 1% of trees ≥ 1 cm diameter at breast height (DBH), all trees ≥ 60 cm DBH, and those rank‐ordered largest trees that cumulatively comprise 50% of forest biomass. Results Averaged across these 48 forest plots, the largest 1% of trees ≥ 1 cm DBH comprised 50% of aboveground live biomass, with hectare‐scale standard deviation of 26%. Trees ≥ 60 cm DBH comprised 41% of aboveground live tree biomass. The size of the largest trees correlated with total forest biomass ( r 2 = .62, p &lt; .001). Large‐diameter trees in high biomass forests represented far fewer species relative to overall forest richness ( r 2 = .45, p &lt; .001). Forests with more diverse large‐diameter tree communities were comprised of smaller trees ( r 2 = .33, p &lt; .001). Lower large‐diameter richness was associated with large‐diameter trees being individuals of more common species ( r 2 = .17, p = .002). The concentration of biomass in the largest 1% of trees declined with increasing absolute latitude ( r 2 = .46, p &lt; .001), as did forest density ( r 2 = .31, p &lt; .001). Forest structural complexity increased with increasing absolute latitude ( r 2 = .26, p &lt; .001). Main conclusions Because large‐diameter trees constitute roughly half of the mature forest biomass worldwide, their dynamics and sensitivities to environmental change represent potentially large controls on global forest carbon cycling. We recommend managing forests for conservation of existing large‐diameter trees or those that can soon reach large diameters as a simple way to conserve and potentially enhance ecosystem services.

Wildfire‐produced charcoal is a common component of soils, affecting a range of important abiotic and biotic soil processes. Our ability to predict the effects of charcoal addition to soil is currently limited, however, by our understanding of how charcoal affects the soil microbial community mediating many of these processes. This study sought to improve our understanding of the relationship between charcoal addition and soil microbial biomass and activity among temperate soils. Charcoal was added to four distinct temperate soils, a Mollisol, an Alfisol, an Entisol, and a Spodosol, at five application levels ranging from 0 to 0.1 kg charcoal kg −1 soil, and incubated at 25°C with measurements at approximately 0, 1.5, and 3 mo. We hypothesized that microbial biomass and activity would increase with increasing charcoal application in all soils, but the relative magnitude of the response would depend on the texture and fertility of each soil. As hypothesized, microbial biomass and activity and Bray P increased significantly with increasing charcoal application, while extractable N decreased. The coniferous forest soil provided a notable exception to the general patterns of N availability, having the highest total extractable N at the highest charcoal application level. Our results suggest that charcoal additions affected microbial biomass, microbial activity, and nutrient availability in relatively similar ways in all four soils that we studied, suggesting considerable predictability in response to charcoal application. Differences in the magnitude of the microbial response, however, appeared dependent on differences in nutrient availability among soils.

We present canonical linearized equations of motion for the Whipple bicycle model consisting of four rigid laterally symmetric ideally hinged parts: two wheels, a frame and a front assembly. The wheels are also axisymmetric and make ideal knife-edge rolling point contact with the ground level. The mass distribution and geometry are otherwise arbitrary. This conservative non-holonomic system has a seven-dimensional accessible configuration space and three velocity degrees of freedom parametrized by rates of frame lean, steer angle and rear wheel rotation. We construct the terms in the governing equations methodically for easy implementation. The equations are suitable for e.g. the study of bicycle self-stability. We derived these equations by hand in two ways and also checked them against two nonlinear dynamics simulations. In the century-old literature, several sets of equations fully agree with those here and several do not. Two benchmarks provide test cases for checking alternative formulations of the equations of motion or alternative numerical solutions. Further, the results here can also serve as a check for general purpose dynamic programs. For the benchmark bicycles, we accurately calculate the eigenvalues (the roots of the characteristic equation) and the speeds at which bicycle lean and steer are self-stable, confirming the century-old result that this conservative system can have asymptotic stability.

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between communication andproductivity. Specifically, we had two aims: (a) to determine employee perceptions ofthe impact of eight dimensions of communication satisfaction on productivity, and (b)to understand how the type of organization may moderate the link between communication and productivity. Two businesses, representative of service and manufacturing organizations, were investigated by administering the Communication SatisfactionQuestionnaire and interviewing all employees. The results showed that communication was perceived to have an impact on productivity that varied in both kind andmagnitude. Moreover, a number of intriguing differences emerged between these twocompanies. The findings suggest that the link between communication and productivity is more complex than previously assumed.

In recent years, the concept of resilience has been introduced to the engineering field in particular related to disaster mitigation and management. However, the built environment is only part of the elements that support community functions. Maintaining community functionality during and after a disaster, defined as resilience, is influenced by multiple components. The paper is proposing a framework for measuring community resilience at different spatial and temporal scales. Seven dimensions are identified for measuring community resilience: population and demographics, environmental and ecosystem, organized governmental services, physical infrastructures, lifestyle and community competence, economic development, and social-cultural capital. They are summarized with the acronym PEOPLES. Each dimension is characterized by a corresponding performance metric that is combined with the other dimensions using a multilayered approach. Therefore, once a hybrid model of the community is defined, the proposed framework can be applied to measure its performance against any type of extreme event during emergency and in long term postdisaster phases. A resilience index can be determined to reflect all, or part, of the dimensions influencing the events. Several applications of part of such framework can already be found in literature for different types of infrastructures, physical and organizational (e.g., gas network, water distribution networks, health care facilities). The proposed framework can be used as decision support by stakeholders and managers and it can help planners in selecting the optimal restoration strategies that enhance the community resilience index.

Summary The relationship between species richness and ecosystem function, as measured by productivity or biomass, is of long‐standing theoretical and practical interest in ecology. This is especially true for forests, which represent a majority of global biomass, productivity and biodiversity. Here, we conduct an analysis of relationships between tree species richness, biomass and productivity in 25 forest plots of area 8–50 ha from across the world. The data were collected using standardized protocols, obviating the need to correct for methodological differences that plague many studies on this topic. We found that at very small spatial grains (0.04 ha) species richness was generally positively related to productivity and biomass within plots, with a doubling of species richness corresponding to an average 48% increase in productivity and 53% increase in biomass. At larger spatial grains (0.25 ha, 1 ha), results were mixed, with negative relationships becoming more common. The results were qualitatively similar but much weaker when we controlled for stem density: at the 0.04 ha spatial grain, a doubling of species richness corresponded to a 5% increase in productivity and 7% increase in biomass. Productivity and biomass were themselves almost always positively related at all spatial grains. Synthesis . This is the first cross‐site study of the effect of tree species richness on forest biomass and productivity that systematically varies spatial grain within a controlled methodology. The scale‐dependent results are consistent with theoretical models in which sampling effects and niche complementarity dominate at small scales, while environmental gradients drive patterns at large scales. Our study shows that the relationship of tree species richness with biomass and productivity changes qualitatively when moving from scales typical of forest surveys (0.04 ha) to slightly larger scales (0.25 and 1 ha). This needs to be recognized in forest conservation policy and management.

"The third edition of The Beast Within has been updated throughout to include current scholarship, new discussion of definitions, and fresh perspectives on critical animal theory that places animals, rather than humans, at the center of the discourse. With an interdisciplinary approach that discusses humans and animals in relation to domestication, symbolism, science, law, religion, food and diet, sexuality, and entertainment, The Beast Within is an essential resource for all students of animal history, literature, and art in the Middle Ages"--

The Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman) is widely used to assess mood states. However, the utility of the POMS has been restricted by the lack of normative data from the general population. We report on our adult (N = 400) and geriatric (N = 170) POMS standardization samples. Both groups were age-, gender-, and race-stratified according to 1990 census data. We also report on convergent and discriminant validity of POMS scales, using a multitrait, multimethod paradigm.

Theory predicts that higher biodiversity in the tropics is maintained by specialized interactions among plants and their natural enemies that result in conspecific negative density dependence (CNDD). By using more than 3000 species and nearly 2.4 million trees across 24 forest plots worldwide, we show that global patterns in tree species diversity reflect not only stronger CNDD at tropical versus temperate latitudes but also a latitudinal shift in the relationship between CNDD and species abundance. CNDD was stronger for rare species at tropical versus temperate latitudes, potentially causing the persistence of greater numbers of rare species in the tropics. Our study reveals fundamental differences in the nature of local-scale biotic interactions that contribute to the maintenance of species diversity across temperate and tropical communities.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to review the existing literature on blockchain technology, present some trends and consider its potential value in supply chain management (SCM). Design/methodology/approach Papers that contained the word “blockchain” in their titles, keywords or abstracts were selected for conducting trend analyses. Findings The blockchain technology is rapidly making inroads in many industries and there is tremendous potential to eliminate intermediaries and to make SCM more efficient. Research limitations/implications This analysis is limited to 299 papers from the EBSCO database through December 2018. Practical implications This paper highlights the imperative role of blockchain technology that has created a discourse in the world of innovation and technology. This work will help academics to further the understanding of blockchain technology. Social implications Blockchain technology will provide transparency to consumers. Originality/value This paper presents the first review of blockchain technology and delves into its value in SCM. This work will help researchers in identifying the areas where blockchain is the most desirable and can be implemented.

The Microscopic Imager (MI) on the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity has returned images of Mars with higher resolution than any previous camera system, allowing detailed petrographic and sedimentological studies of the rocks and soils at the Meridiani Planum landing site. Designed to simulate a geologist's hand lens, the MI is mounted on Opportunity's instrument arm and can resolve objects 0.1 mm across or larger. This paper provides an overview of MI operations, data calibration, and analysis of MI data returned during the first 900 sols (Mars days) of the Opportunity landed mission. Analyses of Opportunity MI data have helped to resolve major questions about the origin of observed textures and features. These studies support eolian sediment transport, rather than impact surge processes, as the dominant depositional mechanism for Burns formation strata. MI stereo observations of a rock outcrop near the rim of Erebus Crater support the previous interpretation of similar sedimentary structures in Eagle Crater as being formed by surficial flow of liquid water. Well‐sorted spherules dominate ripple surfaces on the Meridiani plains, and the size of spherules between ripples decreases by about 1 mm from north to south along Opportunity's traverse between Endurance and Erebus craters.

Human lesion and functional imaging data suggest a central role for the amygdala in the processing of negative stimuli. To determine whether the amygdala's role in affective processing extends beyond negative stimuli, subjects viewed pictures that varied in emotional content (positive vs negative valence) and arousal level (high vs low) while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging. Amygdala activation, relative to a low arousal and neutral valence picture baseline, was significantly increased for both positively and negatively valenced stimuli and did not differ for the two valences. There were no laterality effects. Whereas arousal level appeared to modulate the amygdala response for negative stimuli, all positively valenced pictures (both high and low in arousal) produced significant amygdala responses. These results clearly demonstrate a role for the amygdala in processing emotional stimuli that extends beyond negative and fearful stimuli.

This article offers a feminist deconstruction of legitimacy regarding the intentional decision by midlife independent single women to enter solo parenthood. Data collection involved interviews with 26 single mothers by choice (SMCs) and two years of participant observation in two Single Mothers by Choice support groups. Their accounts indicate that SMCs feel entitled to enter solo motherhood because they possess four essential attributes: age, responsibility, emotional maturity, and fiscal capability. SMCs use economic, moral, and religious justifications to further legitimize their decisions. These justifications allow SMCs to present themselves as competent, ethical, and mainstream mothers.

As communities become more urbanized, there is concern about a decline in sense of community and an increase in fear of crime. Developers are creating gated communities to reverse this trend, but their success remains unknown. This research empirically addresses the issues of sense of community, crime, and fear of crime in a comparative study of two gated and two nongated communities with similar attributes. Mail surveys were conducted in both a gated and a nongated community in two contexts: public housing and high-income suburban communities. Results showed that high-income gated community residents reported a significantly lower sense of community, significantly higher perceived personal safety and comparative community safety, and no significant difference in actual crime rate as compared to their nongated counterparts. In the low-income communities, there were no significant differences between the gated and nongated communities on any of the measures. Implications of creating gated communities in different economic contexts are discussed.

Personality and Roles: Sources of Regularities in Social Behavior For behavioral scientists, whether they identify primarily with the science of psychology or with that of sociology, there may be no c

Two experiments investigated how people replenish the self's limited regulatory resource after it is depleted by self-control exertion. Specifically, in Experiment 1, when depleted participants received a 10-minute period between regulatory tasks, their subsequent performance equaled non-depleted participants. In Experiment 2, inducing participants to relax between self-regulation tasks reduced the typical depletion effects. Thus, these findings suggest that replenishment of the self's depleted resources occurs given the occurrence of favorable conditions.

Abstract Hydraulic conductivity tests were conducted on thirteen compacted clayey soils being used for compacted clay liners at landfills throughout the United States. The soils were prepared to various molding water contents and then compacted and permeated in the laboratory. Results of the tests show that for all of the soils, zones exist in the compaction plane (i.e., dry unit weight vs. water content) where the hydraulic conductivity is similar. These zones fall roughly parallel to contours of constant initial saturation (degree of saturation at compaction), with lower hydraulic conductivities generally occurring for conditions corresponding to higher initial saturation. Wet of the line of optimums, lower hydraulic conductivity is also attained for soils that are more plastic and have a greater quantity of fines. A regression equation was developed from the data to estimate hydraulic conductivity given the initial saturation, compactive effort, plasticity index, and clay content.